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Bacterial Toxins Active against Mosquitoes: Mode of Action and Resistance. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080523. [PMID: 34437394 PMCID: PMC8402332 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Larvicides based on the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis svar. israelensis (Bti) and Lysinibacillus sphaericus are effective and environmentally safe compounds for the control of dipteran insects of medical importance. They produce crystals that display specific and potent insecticidal activity against larvae. Bti crystals are composed of multiple protoxins: three from the three-domain Cry type family, which bind to different cell receptors in the midgut, and one cytolytic (Cyt1Aa) protoxin that can insert itself into the cell membrane and act as surrogate receptor of the Cry toxins. Together, those toxins display a complex mode of action that shows a low risk of resistance selection. L. sphaericus crystals contain one major binary toxin that display an outstanding persistence in field conditions, which is superior to Bti. However, the action of the Bin toxin based on its interaction with a single receptor is vulnerable for resistance selection in insects. In this review we present the most recent data on the mode of action and synergism of these toxins, resistance issues, and examples of their use worldwide. Data reported in recent years improved our understanding of the mechanism of action of these toxins, showed that their combined use can enhance their activity and counteract resistance, and reinforced their relevance for mosquito control programs in the future years.
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Riaz MA, Adang MJ, Hua G, Rezende TMT, Rezende AM, Shen GM. Identification of Lysinibacillus sphaericus Binary toxin binding proteins in a malarial mosquito cell line by proteomics: A novel approach towards improving mosquito control. J Proteomics 2020; 227:103918. [PMID: 32712372 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial insecticidal proteins, such as the Bin toxin from Lysinibacillus sphaericus, could be used more extensively to control insecticide resistant mosquitoes. This study was aimed at identification of mosquito cell proteins binding Bin toxin. Results showed that purified toxin was toxic to Anopheles gambiae larvae and Ag55 cultured cells. Clathrin heavy chain (an endocytosis protein) and glycolytic enzymes such as pyruvate kinase, enolase and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase were identified as binders of Bin toxin. The viability of Ag55 cells in the presence of endocytosis inhibitor, pitstop2, was significantly decreased upon Bin treatment, while the inhibitor chlorpromazine did not affect Bin toxicity. Bin toxin treatment decreased ATP production and mitochondrial respiration in Ag55 cells, whereas non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption significantly increased after Bin toxin treatment. These findings are steps towards understanding how Bin toxin kills mosquitoes. SIGNIFICANCE: Mosquitoes are vectors of pathogens causing human diseases such as dengue fever, yellow fever, zika virus and malaria. An insecticidal toxin from Lysinibacillus sphaericus called Binary, or Bin, toxin could be used more extensively to control insecticide resistant mosquitoes. Bin toxin enter cells in susceptible mosquitoes and induces apoptosis or autophagy. In the current research, we used the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae Ag55 cell line as a model. A proteomic-based approach identified proteins that interact with Bin toxin. Interacting proteins include clathrin heavy chain (endocytosis protein) and glycolysis enzymes such as pyruvate kinase, enolase and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase. In Ag55 cell toxicity assays, an endocytosis inhibitor, pitstop2, increased Bin toxicity. Real time assays with a Seahorse™ flux analyzer showed that Bin significantly affects mitochondrial respiration, a result consistent with cell death via apoptosis or autophagy. These research findings add insights into how an unusual binary protein exploits cellular machinery to kill mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Asam Riaz
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha 40100, Pakistan; Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States
| | - Michael J Adang
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States.
| | - Gang Hua
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States
| | - Tatiana Maria Teodoro Rezende
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States; Instituto Aggeu Magalhaes-FIOCRUZ, Recife, PE 50740-465, Brazil
| | - Antonio Mauro Rezende
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States; Instituto Aggeu Magalhaes-FIOCRUZ, Recife, PE 50740-465, Brazil
| | - Guang-Mao Shen
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States; College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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3
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Mosquito-larvicidal BinA toxin displays affinity for glycoconjugates: Proposal for BinA mediated cytotoxicity. J Invertebr Pathol 2018; 156:29-40. [PMID: 30003921 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Lysinibacillus sphaericus parasporal BinAB toxin displays mosquito larvicidal activity against Culex and Anopheles, but several Aedes species are refractory. Recently reported crystal structure of BinAB revealed the presence of N-terminal lectin-like domain in BinA. Hemagglutination and hemolytic activities were not observed for BinA in the present studies. We attempted to characterize carbohydrate specificity of BinA by high-throughput approaches using extrinsic fluorescence and thermofluor shift assay. A total of 34 saccharides (mono-, di- and polysaccharides, and glycoproteins) were used for initial high-throughput screening. The promising glycans were identified based on significant change in the fluorescence intensity. Surface plasmon resonance revealed differential binding of BinA with glycoproteins (fetuin, asialofetuin and thyroglobulin) and affinity for simple sugars, l-fucose and l-arabinose. In the limited carbohydrate competition assay, arabinose, fucose and fetuin inhibited BinA toxicity towards Culex larvae. This study for the first time provides direct evidence that BinA is competent to bind diverse and structurally different glycosylated proteins. This activity may be linked to its intracellular cytotoxicity, as protein N-glycosylation is thought to be critical for development and survival of insect larvae. The glycoproteins do not form stable complexes with BinA, however, as observed in the pull-down assay using affinity immobilized BinA and in native-PAGE analysis. As BinA displays only mild affinity with receptor polypeptide, we hypothesize that toxin-receptor specificity of BinA in Culex may be mediated by dual interaction of BinA with glycan core of GPI anchor and receptor polypeptide. The study shall be useful for refining strategies for improving larvicidal activity and for broadening target specificity of BinAB toxin.
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4
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Shubin AV, Demidyuk IV, Komissarov AA, Rafieva LM, Kostrov SV. Cytoplasmic vacuolization in cell death and survival. Oncotarget 2018; 7:55863-55889. [PMID: 27331412 PMCID: PMC5342458 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.10150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytoplasmic vacuolization (also called cytoplasmic vacuolation) is a well-known morphological phenomenon observed in mammalian cells after exposure to bacterial or viral pathogens as well as to various natural and artificial low-molecular-weight compounds. Vacuolization often accompanies cell death; however, its role in cell death processes remains unclear. This can be attributed to studying vacuolization at the level of morphology for many years. At the same time, new data on the molecular mechanisms of the vacuole formation and structure have become available. In addition, numerous examples of the association between vacuolization and previously unknown cell death types have been reported. Here, we review these data to make a deeper insight into the role of cytoplasmic vacuolization in cell death and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey V Shubin
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Chemical Carcinogenesis, N.N. Blokhin Russian Cancer Research Center, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Biologically Active Nanostructures, N.F. Gamaleya Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ilya V Demidyuk
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexey A Komissarov
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Lola M Rafieva
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey V Kostrov
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow, Russia
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5
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Contribution of Lysinibacillus sphaericus hemolysin and chitin-binding protein in entomopathogenic activity against insecticide resistant Aedes aegypti. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 33:181. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-017-2348-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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6
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Biological Control Strategies for Mosquito Vectors of Arboviruses. INSECTS 2017; 8:insects8010021. [PMID: 28208639 PMCID: PMC5371949 DOI: 10.3390/insects8010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Historically, biological control utilizes predatory species and pathogenic microorganisms to reduce the population of mosquitoes as disease vectors. This is particularly important for the control of mosquito-borne arboviruses, which normally do not have specific antiviral therapies available. Although development of resistance is likely, the advantages of biological control are that the resources used are typically biodegradable and ecologically friendly. Over the past decade, the advancement of molecular biology has enabled optimization by the manipulation of genetic materials associated with biological control agents. Two significant advancements are the discovery of cytoplasmic incompatibility induced by Wolbachia bacteria, which has enhanced replacement programs, and the introduction of dominant lethal genes into local mosquito populations through the release of genetically modified mosquitoes. As various arboviruses continue to be significant public health threats, biological control strategies have evolved to be more diverse and become critical tools to reduce the disease burden of arboviruses.
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7
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Colletier JP, Sawaya MR, Gingery M, Rodriguez JA, Cascio D, Brewster AS, Michels-Clark T, Hice RH, Coquelle N, Boutet S, Williams GJ, Messerschmidt M, DePonte DP, Sierra RG, Laksmono H, Koglin JE, Hunter MS, Park HW, Uervirojnangkoorn M, Bideshi DK, Brunger AT, Federici BA, Sauter NK, Eisenberg DS. De novo phasing with X-ray laser reveals mosquito larvicide BinAB structure. Nature 2016; 539:43-47. [PMID: 27680699 PMCID: PMC5161637 DOI: 10.1038/nature19825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BinAB is a naturally occurring paracrystalline larvicide distributed worldwide to combat the devastating diseases borne by mosquitoes. These crystals are composed of homologous molecules, BinA and BinB, which play distinct roles in the multi-step intoxication process, transforming from harmless, robust crystals, to soluble protoxin heterodimers, to internalized mature toxin, and finally toxic oligomeric pores. The small size of the crystals, 50 unit cells per edge, on average, has impeded structural characterization by conventional means. Here, we report the structure of BinAB solved de novo by serial-femtosecond crystallography at an X-ray free-electron laser (XFEL). The structure reveals tyrosine and carboxylate-mediated contacts acting as pH switches to release soluble protoxin in the alkaline larval midgut. An enormous heterodimeric interface appears responsible for anchoring BinA to receptor-bound BinB for co-internalization. Remarkably, this interface is largely composed of propeptides, suggesting that proteolytic maturation would trigger dissociation of the heterodimer and progression to pore formation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael R Sawaya
- UCLA-DOE Institute for Genomics and Proteomics, Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570, USA
| | - Mari Gingery
- UCLA-DOE Institute for Genomics and Proteomics, Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570, USA
| | - Jose A Rodriguez
- UCLA-DOE Institute for Genomics and Proteomics, Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570, USA
| | - Duilio Cascio
- UCLA-DOE Institute for Genomics and Proteomics, Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570, USA
| | - Aaron S Brewster
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Tara Michels-Clark
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Robert H Hice
- Department of Entomology and Graduate Program in Cell, Molecular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA
| | - Nicolas Coquelle
- Institut de Biologie Structurale (IBS), Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, 38044 Grenoble, France
| | - Sébastien Boutet
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Garth J Williams
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Marc Messerschmidt
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Daniel P DePonte
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Raymond G Sierra
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Hartawan Laksmono
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Jason E Koglin
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Mark S Hunter
- Linac Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Hyun-Woo Park
- Department of Entomology and Graduate Program in Cell, Molecular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, California Baptist University, Riverside, California 92504, USA
| | - Monarin Uervirojnangkoorn
- Molecular and Cellular Physiology, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Dennis K Bideshi
- Department of Entomology and Graduate Program in Cell, Molecular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, California Baptist University, Riverside, California 92504, USA
| | - Axel T Brunger
- Molecular and Cellular Physiology, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Brian A Federici
- Department of Entomology and Graduate Program in Cell, Molecular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA
| | - Nicholas K Sauter
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - David S Eisenberg
- UCLA-DOE Institute for Genomics and Proteomics, Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1570, USA
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8
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Hire RS, Hua G, Zhang Q, Mishra R, Adang MJ. Anopheles gambiae Ag55 cell line as a model for Lysinibacillus sphaericus Bin toxin action. J Invertebr Pathol 2015; 132:105-110. [PMID: 26408969 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2015.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Binary toxin (Bin) produced by Lysinibacillus sphaericus is toxic to Culex and Anopheles mosquito larvae. It has been used world-wide for control of mosquitoes that vector disease. The Bin toxin interacts with the glucosidase receptor, Cpm1, in Culex and its orthologue, Agm3, in Anopheles mosquitoes. However, the exact mechanism of its mode of action is not clearly understood. It is essential to understand mode of action of Bin toxin to circumvent the resistance that develops over generations of exposure. A suitable model cell line will facilitate investigations of the molecular action of Bin toxin. Here we report Bin toxin activity on Ag55 cell line that has been derived from an actual target, Anopheles gambiae larvae. The Bin toxin, both in pro and active forms, kills the Ag55 cells within 24h. Bin toxin internalizes in Ag55 cells and also induces vacuolation as tracked by Lysotracker dye. The dose response studies showed that 1.5nM of Bin toxin is sufficient to induce vacuolation and Ag55 cell death. Presence of α-glucosidase gene (Agm3) expression in the Ag55 cells was also confirmed. Thus, Ag55 cells constitute an appropriate model system to decipher the mode of Bin action in mosquito larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramesh S Hire
- Nuclear Agriculture & Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, India; Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States.
| | - Gang Hua
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States
| | - Ruchir Mishra
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States
| | - Michael J Adang
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2603, United States.
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9
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Lekakarn H, Promdonkoy B, Boonserm P. Interaction of Lysinibacillus sphaericus binary toxin with mosquito larval gut cells: Binding and internalization. J Invertebr Pathol 2015; 132:125-131. [PMID: 26408968 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2015.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The binary toxin produced by Lysinibacillus sphaericus is composed of BinA and BinB subunits. Together, but not separately, the two subunits are highly toxic to Culex quinquefasciatus larvae, but show no toxicity to Aedes aegypti. The molecular mechanism underlying intoxication has not been clearly elucidated. The present study compares the binding and the internalization of binary toxin into the midgut epithelial cells of susceptible C. quinquefasciatus mosquito larvae with those of Bin-refractory A. aegypti. The guts from larvae fed with fluorescently labeled toxin were dissected and analyzed using a confocal laser scanning microscope. When fed with a mixture of both components, co-localization of BinA and BinB was detected both on the cell surface and in the cytoplasm of Culex larval gut cells. However, administration of BinA alone resulted in localization only on the cell membrane, whereas BinB alone was detected both on the cell membrane and inside the cytoplasm. In contrast, when a mixture of both components, or each individual component, was fed to Aedes larvae, BinA and BinB were unable to reach the cytoplasm and were localized only on the cell membrane. These results are consistent with the suggestion that the internalization of BinA is essential for toxicity, and that BinB is required for this internalization into susceptible larval gut cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hataikarn Lekakarn
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, Phuttamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Boonhiang Promdonkoy
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, 113 Pahonyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
| | - Panadda Boonserm
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, Phuttamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand.
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10
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An oligomeric complex of BinA/BinB is not formed in-situ in mosquito-larvicidal Lysinibacillus sphaericus ISPC-8. J Invertebr Pathol 2014; 122:44-7. [PMID: 25196469 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Revised: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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11
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Srisucharitpanit K, Yao M, Promdonkoy B, Chimnaronk S, Tanaka I, Boonserm P. Crystal structure of BinB: A receptor binding component of the binary toxin from Lysinibacillus sphaericus. Proteins 2014; 82:2703-12. [DOI: 10.1002/prot.24636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Revised: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kanokporn Srisucharitpanit
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University; Salaya, Phuttamonthon Nakhon Pathom 73170 Thailand
- Faculty of Allied Health Science; Burapha University, Saensook; Muang District Chon Buri 20131 Thailand
| | - Min Yao
- Faculty of Advanced Life Sciences; Hokkaido University; Sapporo 060-0810 Japan
| | - Boonhiang Promdonkoy
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency; 113 Pahonyothin Road, Khlong Nueng Khlong Luang Pathum Thani 12120 Thailand
| | - Sarin Chimnaronk
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University; Salaya, Phuttamonthon Nakhon Pathom 73170 Thailand
| | - Isao Tanaka
- Faculty of Advanced Life Sciences; Hokkaido University; Sapporo 060-0810 Japan
| | - Panadda Boonserm
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University; Salaya, Phuttamonthon Nakhon Pathom 73170 Thailand
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12
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Srisucharitpanit K, Yao M, Chimnaronk S, Promdonkoy B, Tanaka I, Boonserm P. Crystallization and preliminary X-ray crystallographic analysis of the functional form of BinB binary toxin from Bacillus sphaericus. Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun 2013; 69:170-3. [PMID: 23385761 PMCID: PMC3564622 DOI: 10.1107/s1744309113000110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The binary toxin from Bacillus sphaericus consists of two proteins, BinA and BinB, which work together to exert toxicity against mosquito larvae. BinB is proposed to be a receptor-binding domain and internalizes BinA into the midgut cells, resulting in toxicity via an unknown mechanism. The functional form of BinB has been successfully crystallized. The crystals of BinB diffracted to a resolution of 1.75 Å and belong to space group P6(2)22, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 95.2, c = 154.9 Å. Selenomethionine-substituted BinB (SeMetBinB) was prepared and crystallized for experimental phasing. The SeMetBinB crystal data were collected at a wavelength of 0.979 Å and diffracted to a resolution of 1.85 Å.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanokporn Srisucharitpanit
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, Phuttamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Min Yao
- Faculty of Advanced Life Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
| | - Sarin Chimnaronk
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, Phuttamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Boonhiang Promdonkoy
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, 113 Pahonyothin Road, Klong 1, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
| | - Isao Tanaka
- Faculty of Advanced Life Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
| | - Panadda Boonserm
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, Phuttamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
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13
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Berry C. The bacterium, Lysinibacillus sphaericus, as an insect pathogen. J Invertebr Pathol 2011; 109:1-10. [PMID: 22137877 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2011.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 10/12/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Since the first bacteria with insecticidal activity against mosquito larvae were reported in the 1960s, many have been described, with the most potent being isolates of Bacillus thuringiensis or Lysinibacillus sphaericus (formerly and best known as Bacillus sphaericus). Given environmental concerns over the use of broad spectrum synthetic chemical insecticides and the evolution of resistance to these, industry placed emphasis on the development of bacteria as alternative control agents. To date, numerous commercial formulations of B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti) are available in many countries for control of nuisance and vector mosquitoes. Within the past few years, commercial formulations of L. sphaericus (Ls) have become available. Because Bti has been in use for more than 30 years, its properties are well know, more so than those of Ls. Thus, the purpose of this review is to summarise the most critical aspects of Ls and the various proteins that account for its insecticidal properties, especially the mosquitocidal activity of the most common isolates studied. Data are reviewed for the binary toxin, which accounts for the activity of sporulated cells, as well as for other toxins produced during vegetative growth, including sphaericolysin (active against cockroaches and caterpillars) and the different mosquitocidal Mtx and Cry toxins. Future studies of these could well lead to novel potent and environmentally compatible insecticidal products for controlling a range of insect pests and vectors of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin Berry
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK.
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14
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Opota O, Gauthier NC, Doye A, Berry C, Gounon P, Lemichez E, Pauron D. Bacillus sphaericus binary toxin elicits host cell autophagy as a response to intoxication. PLoS One 2011; 6:e14682. [PMID: 21339824 PMCID: PMC3038859 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacillus sphaericus strains that produce the binary toxin (Bin) are highly toxic to Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes, and have been used since the late 1980s as a biopesticide for the control of these vectors of infectious disease agents. The Bin toxin produced by these strains targets mosquito larval midgut epithelial cells where it binds to Cpm1 (Culex pipiens maltase 1) a digestive enzyme, and causes severe intracellular damage, including a dramatic cytoplasmic vacuolation. The intoxication of mammalian epithelial MDCK cells engineered to express Cpm1 mimics the cytopathologies observed in mosquito enterocytes following Bin ingestion: pore formation and vacuolation. In this study we demonstrate that Bin-induced vacuolisation is a transient phenomenon that affects autolysosomes. In addition, we show that this vacuolisation is associated with induction of autophagy in intoxicated cells. Furthermore, we report that after internalization, Bin reaches the recycling endosomes but is not localized either within the vacuolating autolysosomes or within any other degradative compartment. Our observations reveal that Bin elicits autophagy as the cell's response to intoxication while protecting itself from degradation through trafficking towards the recycling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Onya Opota
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UMR Interactions Biotiques et Santé Végétale, INRA 1301-CNRS 6243-Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis, Sophia Antipolis, France
- * E-mail: (OO); (DP)
| | - Nils C. Gauthier
- INSERM, U895, UNSA, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire, C3M, Toxines Microbiennes dans la relation hôte pathogènes, Nice, France
| | - Anne Doye
- INSERM, U895, UNSA, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire, C3M, Toxines Microbiennes dans la relation hôte pathogènes, Nice, France
| | - Colin Berry
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Pierre Gounon
- Centre Commun de Microscopie Electronique Appliquée, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France
| | - Emmanuel Lemichez
- INSERM, U895, UNSA, Centre Méditerranéen de Médecine Moléculaire, C3M, Toxines Microbiennes dans la relation hôte pathogènes, Nice, France
| | - David Pauron
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UMR Interactions Biotiques et Santé Végétale, INRA 1301-CNRS 6243-Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis, Sophia Antipolis, France
- * E-mail: (OO); (DP)
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15
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Tangsongcharoen C, Boonserm P, Promdonkoy B. Functional characterization of truncated fragments of Bacillus sphaericus binary toxin BinB. J Invertebr Pathol 2011; 106:230-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2010.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2010] [Revised: 09/25/2010] [Accepted: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Boonyos P, Soonsanga S, Boonserm P, Promdonkoy B. Role of cysteine at positions 67, 161 and 241 of a Bacillus sphaericus binary toxin BinB. BMB Rep 2010; 43:23-8. [DOI: 10.5483/bmbrep.2010.43.1.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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17
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Promdonkoy B, Promdonkoy P, Panyim S. High-level expression in Escherichia coli, purification and mosquito-larvicidal activity of the binary toxin from Bacillus sphaericus. Curr Microbiol 2008; 57:626-30. [PMID: 18781355 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-008-9254-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2008] [Revised: 08/13/2008] [Accepted: 08/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The mosquito-larvicidal binary toxin produced by Bacillus sphaericus consists of two polypeptides: BinA and BinB. Both proteins function together, and maximum toxicity is obtained when both are present in equimolar ratio. Cloning and expression of each component separately in heterologous hosts led to low toxicity of the crystal proteins. To improve the expression level, the purification process, and the activity of the binary toxin, the binA and binB genes were separately cloned in Escherichia coli. Each gene was fused in frame to the glutathione S-transferase (GST) gene to be expressed as GST-fusion protein (GST-BinA and GST-BinB). A high expression level was observed from both constructs, and the fusion proteins exhibited high toxicity to Culex quinquefasciatus larvae. High-purity toxin could be obtained by affinity chromatography. The result suggests that GST moiety facilitates high protein production and enables better solubility of the toxin inclusions inside the larval gut, leading to higher toxicity of the fusion protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boonhiang Promdonkoy
- National Science and Technology Development Agency, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, 113 Phaholyothin Road, Klong 1, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand.
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18
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Jones GW, Nielsen-Leroux C, Yang Y, Yuan Z, Dumas VF, Monnerat RG, Berry C. A new Cry toxin with a unique two-component dependency from Bacillus sphaericus. FASEB J 2007; 21:4112-20. [PMID: 17646596 DOI: 10.1096/fj.07-8913com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Highly pathogenic strains of Bacillus sphaericus produce the mosquitocidal Bin proteins, but resistance to this toxin can be produced under laboratory and field conditions. Analysis of strains able to overcome this resistance revealed the presence of a previously undescribed type of two-component toxin. One subunit, Cry48Aa1, is related to the 3-domain crystal toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis. Uniquely for this type of protein, insect toxicity is only achieved in the presence of a second, accessory protein, Cry49Aa1. This protein is itself related to both the binary toxin of B. sphaericus and to Cry35 and Cry36 of B. thuringiensis, none of which require interaction with Cry48Aa1-like proteins for their activity. The necessity for both Cry48Aa1 and Cry49Aa1 components for pathogenicity, therefore, indicates an unprecedented interaction to generate toxicity. Despite high potency for purified Cry48Aa1/Cry49Aa1 proteins (LC50 for third instar Culex quinquefasciatus larvae: 15.9 ng/ml and 6.3 ng/ml respectively), bacteria producing them show suboptimal mosquitocidal activity due to low-level Cry48Aa1 production. This new toxin combination may indicate a fortuitous combination of members of the gene families that encode 3-domain Cry toxins and Binary-like toxins, permitting the "mix-and-match" evolution of a new component in the mosquitocidal armoury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth W Jones
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Museum Ave., Cardiff CF10 3US, UK
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19
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Boonserm P, Moonsom S, Boonchoy C, Promdonkoy B, Parthasarathy K, Torres J. Association of the components of the binary toxin from Bacillus sphaericus in solution and with model lipid bilayers. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 342:1273-8. [PMID: 16516147 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.02.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2006] [Accepted: 02/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
We show herein that interaction in aqueous solution of the two components of binary toxin from Bacillus sphaericus, BinA and BinB, leads to a dramatic conformational change, from beta turns or random coil, to beta structure. Also, either BinA or BinB separately or their equimolar mixture, interact with lipid bilayers resulting in further conformational changes. Upon membrane association, the change in conformation observed for BinA or BinB separately is different from that observed when the proteins are combined, indicating that proper folding depends on the presence of the complementary subunit. We also show, in contrast to previous reports, that BinB, but not BinA, is able to insert in model neutral lipid monolayers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panadda Boonserm
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Mahidol University, Salaya, Phuttamonthol, Nakornpathom 73170, Thailand.
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20
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Pauchet Y, Luton F, Castella C, Charles JF, Romey G, Pauron D. Effects of a mosquitocidal toxin on a mammalian epithelial cell line expressing its target receptor. Cell Microbiol 2005; 7:1335-44. [PMID: 16098220 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00560.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The spread of diseases transmitted by Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes, such as malaria and West Nile fever, is a growing concern for human health. Bacillus sphaericus binary toxin (Bin) is one of the few available bioinsecticides able to control populations of these mosquitoes efficiently. We previously showed that Bin binds to Cpm1, an alpha-glucosidase located on the apical side of Culex larval midgut epithelium. We analysed the effects of Bin by expressing a construct encoding Cpm1 in the mammalian epithelial MDCK cell line. Cpm1 is targeted to the apical side of polarized MDCK, where it is anchored by glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) and displays alpha-glucosidase activity. Bin bound to transfected cells and induced a non-specific current presumably related to the opening of pores. The formation of these pores may be related to the location of the toxin/receptor complex in lipid raft microdomains. Finally, Bin promoted the time-dependent appearance of intracytoplasmic vacuoles but did not drive cell lysis. Thus, the dual functionality (enzyme/toxin receptor) of Cpm1 is fully conserved in MDCK cells and Cpm1 is an essential target protein for Bin cytotoxicity in Culex mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Pauchet
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UMR 1112 Réponses des Organismes aux Stress Environnementaux, 400 Route des Chappes, BP167, 06903 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France
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21
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Smith AW, Cámara-Artigas A, Brune DC, Allen JP. Implications of high-molecular-weight oligomers of the binary toxin from Bacillus sphaericus. J Invertebr Pathol 2005; 88:27-33. [PMID: 15707866 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2004.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2004] [Revised: 07/20/2004] [Accepted: 10/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The mosquito-larvicidal binary toxin produced by Bacillus sphaericus is composed of BinB and BinA, which have calculated molecular weights of 51.4 and 41.9 kDa, respectively. NaOH extracts of B. sphaericus spores were analyzed using SDS-PAGE. Stained gels showed bands with molecular weights corresponding to those of BinB and BinA as well as two additional bands at 110 and 125 kDa. The matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrum of the purified 110 and 125 kDa bands showed two peaks at 104,160 and 87,358 Da that are assigned to dimers of BinB and BinA, respectively. Mass spectral analysis of trypsin-digested 110 and 125 kDa bands showed peaks at 51,328, 43,523, 43,130, and 40,832 Da that assigned to undigested BinB, two forms of digested BinB and digested BinA, respectively. Dynamic light scattering studies showed a solution of the purified 110 and 125 kDa bands was comprised almost entirely (99.6% of total mass) of a particle with a hydrodynamic radius of 5.6+/-1.2 nm and a calculated molecular weight of 186+/-38 kDa. These data demonstrate that the binary toxin extracted from B. sphaericus spores can exist in solution as an oligomer containing two copies each of BinB and BinA.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
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22
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Regis L, Silva-Filha MH, Nielsen-LeRoux C, Charles JF. Bacteriological larvicides of dipteran disease vectors. Trends Parasitol 2001; 17:377-80. [PMID: 11685898 DOI: 10.1016/s1471-4922(01)01953-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The apparent success in vector control observed between 1950 and 1970 was followed by worldwide resistance to organosynthetic insecticides wherever they were used intensively. Insect resistance to one or more categories of insecticides has limited the effectiveness of these compounds, and their non-selective mode of action adversely affects non-target organisms. This scenario highlights the need for selective agents in integrated vector control programs. This article gives an overview of the main fundamental and applied research topics on entomopathogenic bacteria in relation to their role in vector control.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Regis
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, CPqAM, Dept Entomology, Av Moraes Rego s/n 50670.420 Recife, PE, Brazil.
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23
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Yuan Z, Rang C, Maroun RC, Juárez-Pérez V, Frutos R, Pasteur N, Vendrely C, Charles JF, Nielsen-Leroux C. Identification and molecular structural prediction analysis of a toxicity determinant in the Bacillus sphaericus crystal larvicidal toxin. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2001; 268:2751-60. [PMID: 11322897 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.2001.02176.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The operon containing the genes encoding the subunits of the binary crystal toxin of Bacillus sphaericus strain LP1-G, BinA and BinB (41.9 kDa and 51.4 kDa, respectively), was cloned and sequenced. Purified crystals were not toxic to Culex pipiens larvae. Comparison of the amino-acid sequences of this strain (Bin4) with those of the three other known toxin types (Bin1, Bin2 and Bin3) revealed mutations at six positions, including a serine at position 93 of BinA4, whereas all other types of BinA toxin from B. sphaericus had a leucine at this position. Reciprocal site-directed mutagenesis was performed to replace this serine in BinA4 from LP1-G with a leucine and the leucine in the BinA2 protein from strain 1593 with a serine. Native and mutated genes were cloned and overexpressed. Inclusion bodies were tested on C. pipiens larvae. Unlike the native Bin4 toxin, the mutated protein was toxic, and the reciprocal mutation in Bin2 led to a significant loss of toxicity. In vitro receptor-binding studies showed similar binding behaviour for native and mutated toxins. In the absence of any experimental data on the 3D structure of these proteins, sequence analysis and secondary-structure predictions were performed. Amino acid 93 of the BinA polypeptide probably belongs to an alpha helix that is sensitive to amino-acid modifications. Position 93 may be a key element in the formation of the BinA-BinB complex responsible for the toxicity and stability of B. sphaericus Bin toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Yuan
- CIRAD, Montpellier, France
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24
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Charles JF, Nielsen-LeRoux C. Mosquitocidal bacterial toxins: diversity, mode of action and resistance phenomena. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2001; 95 Suppl 1:201-6. [PMID: 11142715 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762000000700034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria active against dipteran larvae (mosquitoes and black flies) include a wide variety of Bacillus thuringiensis and B. sphaericus strains, as well as isolates of Brevibacillus laterosporus and Clostridium bifermentans. All display different spectra and levels of activity correlated with the nature of the toxins, mainly produced during the sporulation process. This paper describes the structure and mode of action of the main mosquitocidal toxins, in relationship with their potential use in mosquito and/or black fly larvae control. Investigations with laboratory and field colonies of mosquitoes that have become highly resistant to the B. sphaericus Bin toxin have shown that several mechanisms of resistance are involved, some affecting the toxin/receptor binding step, others unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Charles
- Bactéries et Champignons Entomopathogènes, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris, France.
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