Evidence for growth of strains of the plant epiphytic bacterium Erwinia herbicola and transconjugation among the bacterial strains in guts of the silkworm Bombyx mori

Molecular mechanism and potential application of bacterial infection in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

As a representative species of Lepidoptera, Bombyx mori has been widely studied and applied. However, bacterial infection has always been an important pathogen threatening the growth of silkworms. Bombyx mori can resist various pathogenic bacteria through their own physical barrier and innate immune system. However, compared with other insects, such as Drosophila melanogaster, research on the antibacterial mechanism of silkworms is still in its infancy. This review systematically summarized the routes of bacterial infection in silkworms, the antibacterial mechanism of silkworms after ingestion or wounding infection, and the intestinal bacteria and infection of silkworms. Finally, we will discuss silkworms as a model animal for studying bacterial infectious diseases and screening antibacterial drugs.

Eukaryotic Acquisition of a Bacterial Operon

Operons are a hallmark of bacterial genomes, where they allow concerted expression of functionally related genes as single polycistronic transcripts. They are rare in eukaryotes, where each gene usually drives expression of its own independent messenger RNAs. Here, we report the horizontal operon transfer of a siderophore biosynthesis pathway from relatives of Escherichia coli into a group of budding yeast taxa. We further show that the co-linearly arranged secondary metabolism genes are expressed, exhibit eukaryotic transcriptional features, and enable the sequestration and uptake of iron. After transfer, several genetic changes occurred during subsequent evolution, including the gain of new transcription start sites that were sometimes within protein-coding sequences, acquisition of polyadenylation sites, structural rearrangements, and integration of eukaryotic genes into the cluster. We conclude that the genes were likely acquired as a unit, modified for eukaryotic gene expression, and maintained by selection to adapt to the highly competitive, iron-limited environment.

Microbial interactions and the ecology and evolution of Hawaiian Drosophilidae

Adaptive radiations are characterized by an increased rate of speciation and expanded range of habitats and ecological niches exploited by those species. The Hawaiian Drosophilidae is a classic adaptive radiation; a single ancestral species colonized Hawaii approximately 25 million years ago and gave rise to two monophyletic lineages, the Hawaiian Drosophila and the genus Scaptomyza. The Hawaiian Drosophila are largely saprophagous and rely on approximately 40 endemic plant families and their associated microbes to complete development. Scaptomyza are even more diverse in host breadth. While many species of Scaptomyza utilize decomposing plant substrates, some species have evolved to become herbivores, parasites on spider egg masses, and exploit microbes on living plant tissue. Understanding the origin of the ecological diversity encompassed by these nearly 700 described species has been a challenge. The central role of microbes in drosophilid ecology suggests bacterial and fungal associates may have played a role in the diversification of the Hawaiian Drosophilidae. Here we synthesize recent ecological and microbial community data from the Hawaiian Drosophilidae to examine the forces that may have led to this adaptive radiation. We propose that the evolutionary success of the Hawaiian Drosophilidae is due to a combination of factors, including adaptation to novel ecological niches facilitated by microbes.

Promise for plant pest control: root-associated pseudomonads with insecticidal activities

Insects are an important and probably the most challenging pest to control in agriculture, in particular when they feed on belowground parts of plants. The application of synthetic pesticides is problematic owing to side effects on the environment, concerns for public health and the rapid development of resistance. Entomopathogenic bacteria, notably Bacillus thuringiensis and Photorhabdus/Xenorhabdus species, are promising alternatives to chemical insecticides, for they are able to efficiently kill insects and are considered to be environmentally sound and harmless to mammals. However, they have the handicap of showing limited environmental persistence or of depending on a nematode vector for insect infection. Intriguingly, certain strains of plant root-colonizing Pseudomonas bacteria display insect pathogenicity and thus could be formulated to extend the present range of bioinsecticides for protection of plants against root-feeding insects. These entomopathogenic pseudomonads belong to a group of plant-beneficial rhizobacteria that have the remarkable ability to suppress soil-borne plant pathogens, promote plant growth, and induce systemic plant defenses. Here we review for the first time the current knowledge about the occurrence and the molecular basis of insecticidal activity in pseudomonads with an emphasis on plant-beneficial and prominent pathogenic species. We discuss how this fascinating Pseudomonas trait may be exploited for novel root-based approaches to insect control in an integrated pest management framework.

Isolation and characterization of bacteria from the gut of Bombyx mori that degrade cellulose, xylan, pectin and starch and their impact on digestion

Bombyx mori L. (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) have been domesticated and widely used for silk production. It feeds on mulberry leaves. Mulberry leaves are mainly composed of pectin, xylan, cellulose and starch. Some of the digestive enzymes that degrade these carbohydrates might be produced by gut bacteria. Eleven isolates were obtained from the digestive tract of B. mori, including the Gram positive Bacillus circulans and Gram negative Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, Serratia liquefaciens, Enterobacter sp., Pseudomonas fluorescens, P. aeruginosa, Aeromonas sp., and Erwinia sp.. Three of these isolates, P. vulgaris, K. pneumoniae, C. freundii, were cellulolytic and xylanolytic, P. fluorescens and Erwinia sp., were pectinolytic and K. pneumoniae degraded starch. Aeromonas sp. was able to utilize the CMcellulose and xylan. S. liquefaciens was able to utilize three polysaccharides including CMcellulose, xylan and pectin. B. circulans was able to utilize all four polysaccharides with different efficacy. The gut of B. mori has an alkaline pH and all of the isolated bacterial strains were found to grow and degrade polysaccharides at alkaline pH. The number of cellulolytic bacteria increases with each instar.

Conjugative transfer of plasmid-located antibiotic resistance genes within the gastrointestinal tract of lesser mealworm larvae, Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

The frequency of conjugative transfer of antimicrobial resistance plasmids between bacteria within the gastrointestinal tract of lesser mealworm larvae, a prevalent pest in poultry production facilities, was determined. Lesser mealworm larvae were exposed to a negative bacterial control, a donor Salmonella enterica serotype Newport strain, a recipient Escherichia coli, or both donor and recipient to examine horizontal gene transfer of plasmids. Horizontal gene transfer was validated post external disinfection, via a combination of selective culturing, testing of indole production by spot test, characterization of incompatibility plasmids by polymerase chain reaction, and profiling antibiotic susceptibility by a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay. Transconjugants were produced in all larvae exposed to both donor and recipient bacteria at frequencies comparable to control in vitro filter mating conjugation studies run concurrently. Transconjugants displayed resistance to seven antibiotics in our MIC panel and, when characterized for incompatibility plasmids, were positive for the N replicon and negative for the A/C replicon. The transconjugants did not display resistance to expanded-spectrum cephalosporins, which were associated with the A/C plasmid. This study demonstrates that lesser mealworm larvae, which infest poultry litter, are capable of supporting the horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes and that this exchange can occur within their gastrointestinal tract and between different species of bacteria under laboratory conditions. This information is essential to science-based risk assessments of industrial antibiotic usage and its impact on animal and human health.

Horizontal transfer of the tetracycline resistance gene tetM mediated by pCF10 among Enterococcus faecalis in the house fly (Musca domestica L.) alimentary canal

The house fly (Musca domestica L.) alimentary canal was evaluated for the potential of horizontal transfer of tetM on plasmid pCF10 among Enterococcus faecalis. Two sets of experiments were conducted: (1) house flies without surface sterilization and (2) surface-sterilized flies. Both sets of flies were exposed to E. faecalis OG1RF:pCF10 as donor for 12 h and then E. faecalis OG1SSp as recipient for 1 h. Another group of flies received the recipient first for 12 h followed by exposure to the donor strain for 1 h. House flies were screened daily to determine the donor, recipient, and transconjugant bacterial load for up to 5 days. In addition, the sponge-like mouth parts used for food uptake (labellum) of surface-sterilized house flies were removed and analyzed for donors, recipients, and transconjugants, separately. In both groups of flies (n = 90 flies/group), transfer occurred within 24 h after exposure with a transconjugant/donor rate from 8.6 x 10(-5) to 4.5 x 10(1). Transconjugants were also isolated from the house fly labellum. Our data suggest that the house fly digestive tract provides a suitable environment for horizontal transfer of conjugative plasmids and antibiotic resistance genes among enterococci. Our results emphasize the importance of this insect as a potential vector of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains.

Conjugative plasmid transfer between Salmonella enterica Newport and Escherichia coli within the gastrointestinal tract of the lesser mealworm beetle, Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

The objective of this study was to determine if conjugative transfer of antimicrobial resistance plasmids could occur between donor and recipient bacteria within the gastrointestinal tract of lesser meal-worm beetles, a common pest in poultry production facilities. In 3 replicate studies (n = 40 overall), beetles were allowed to feed for 2 h on brain heart infusion agar inoculated with a multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serotype Newport strain (SN11 that carried plasmid replicons A/C and N) at 1.0 x 10(8) cfu/mL. Beetles were surface-disinfected and allowed to feed for 16 h on brain heart infusion agar inoculated with nalidixic acid- and rifampicin-resistant Escherichia coli JM109 at 9.0 x 10(6) cfu/mL. After bacterial exposure, beetles were surface-disinfected, homogenized, and selectively plated for transconjugants. Serial dilutions were done for conjugation frequencies. In vitro filter conjugations were performed simultaneously with beetle conjugations. Transconjugants were produced in all beetles exposed to both donor and recipient bacteria. Ninety-five percent of the beetle and 100% of the in vitro filter transconjugants were positive for the N plasmid replicon. The A/C replicon, which was also detected in the SN11 donor strain, did not transfer in any of the conjugation studies. None of the transconjugants displayed resistance to extended-spectrum cephalosporins. The geometric mean conjugation frequency in the beetle gut was 1.07 x 10(-1). The average conjugation frequencies for the beetle gut were 2 logs higher than those for the filter conjugations 4.1 x 10(-3). This study demonstrates that horizontal transfer of antimicrobial resistance plasmids can occur between Salmonella and E. coli within the gut of beetles and that beetles may be used as an in vivo model to study resistance gene transfer.

Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci, have gut bacteria that are closely related to the symbionts of the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis

It has been shown that many insects have Enterobacteriaceae bacteria in their gut system. The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande [Thysanoptera: Thripidae], has a symbiotic relation with Erwinia species gut bacteria. To determine if other Thripidae species have similar bacterial symbionts, the onion thrips, Thrips tabaci, was studied because, like F. occidentalis, it is phytophagous. Contrary to F. occidentalis, T. tabaci is endemic in Europe and biotypes have been described. Bacteria were isolated from the majority of populations and biotypes of T. tabaci examined. Bacteria were present in high numbers in most individuals of the populations studied. Like F. occidentalis, T. tabaci contained one type of bacterium that clearly outnumbered all other types present in the gut. This bacterium was identified as an Erwinia species, as was also the case for F. occidentalis. However, its biochemical characteristics and 16S rDNA sequence differed from the bacteria present in F. occidentalis.

The gut bacteria of insects: nonpathogenic interactions

The diversity of the Insecta is reflected in the large and varied microbial communities inhabiting the gut. Studies, particularly with termites and cockroaches, have focused on the nutritional contributions of gut bacteria in insects living on suboptimal diets. The indigenous gut bacteria, however, also play a role in withstanding the colonization of the gut by non-indigenous species including pathogens. Gut bacterial consortia adapt by the transfer of plasmids and transconjugation between bacterial strains, and some insect species provide ideal conditions for bacterial conjugation, which suggests that the gut is a "hot spot" for gene transfer. Genomic analysis provides new avenues for the study of the gut microbial community and will reveal the molecular foundations of the relationships between the insect and its microbiome. In this review the intestinal bacteria is discussed in the context of developing our understanding of symbiotic relationships, of multitrophic interactions between insects and plant or animal host, and in developing new strategies for controlling insect pests.

Intergeneric transfer of chromosomal and conjugative plasmid genes between Ralstonia solanacearum and Acinetobacter sp. BD413

Conjugative transfer of a broad-host range plasmid and transformation-mediated transfer of chromosomal genes were found to occur at significant frequencies between Ralstonia solanacearum and Acinetobacter sp. in planta. These intergeneric gene transfers are related to the conditions provided by the infected plant, including the extensive multiplication of these two bacteria in planta and the development of a competence state in Acinetobacter sp. Although interkingdom DNA transfer from nuclear transgenic plants to these bacteria was not detectable, plants infected by pathogens (e.g., Ralstonia solanacearum) and co-colonized by soil saprophyte bacteria (e.g., Acinetobacter sp.) can be considered as potential "hot spots" for gene transfer, even between phylogenetically remote organisms.

Postsymbiotic plasmid acquisition and evolution of the repA1-replicon in Buchnera aphidicola

Buchnera aphidicola is an obligate, strictly vertically transmitted, bacterial symbiont of aphids. It supplies its host with essential amino acids, nutrients required by aphids but deficient in their diet of plant phloem sap. Several lineages of Buchnera show adaptation to their nutritional role in the form of plasmid-mediated amplification of key-genes involved in the biosynthesis of tryptophan (trpEG) and leucine (leuABCD). Phylogenetic analyses of these plasmid-encoded functions have thus far suggested the absence of horizontal plasmid exchange among lineages of Buchnera. Here, we describe three new Buchnera plasmids, obtained from species of the aphid host families Lachnidae and Pemphigidae. All three plasmids belong to the repA1 family of Buchnera plasmids, which is characterized by the presence of a repA1-replicon responsible for replication initiation. A comprehensive analysis of this family of plasmids unexpectedly revealed significantly incongruent phylogenies for different plasmid and chromosomally encoded loci. We infer from these incongruencies a case of horizontal plasmid transfer in Buchnera. This process may have been mediated by secondary endosymbionts, which occasionally undergo horizontal transmission in aphids.

Biological control of an insect pest by gut-colonizing Enterobacter cloacae transformed with ice nucleation gene

The ice nucleation (IN) gene inaA of epiphytic Erwinia (Pantoea) ananas IN10 was transformed into Enterobacter cloacae WBMH-3-CMr originated from the faeces of silkworms. The transformant designated as Ent. cloacae WBMH-3-CMr(pICE6S13) exhibited IN activity, unlike the parent strain. The transgenic strain was ingested by mulberry pyralid larvae, fed on detached mulberry leaves, and the supercooling capacity and cold hardiness of these larvae were examined. The mean supercooling point (SCP) of the larvae ingesting the transgenic strain was - 3.3 degrees C, 8 degrees C higher than that of larvae treated with distilled water (control) and 1.5 C higher than an ice nucleation active (INA) strain of Erw. ananas. The SCPs of the larvae were stably maintained over the 9 d after ingestion. The maintenance of these high SCPs was due to transgenic Ent. cloacae having a more stable and efficient gut colonization than Erw. ananas, which is identified by the distribution of a narrower range of SCPs (-2 to -5 degrees C) in larvae treated with the transgenic stain. Furthermore, most of the larvae ingesting the transgenic strain froze and died when they were exposed to cold conditions of -5 degrees C for 18 h, 3 or 7 d after ingestion. In contrast, most of the larvae ingesting no bacterium did not die under similar conditions. On the other hand, the growth ability of Ent. cloacae WBMH-3-CMr on mulberry leaves tended to be lower than that of epiphytic Erw. ananas, as assayed by pot tests. These findings would expand the possibility of biological control using INA bacteria since Ent. cloacae would harbour a broader host (insect) range for gut colonization and a smaller affinity to plants to benefit from prevention of plant frost injury.