DNA repair mechanism by photolyase: electron transfer path from the photolyase catalytic cofactor FADH(-) to DNA thymine dimer

A circadian clock protein cryptochrome inhibits the expression of inflammatory cytokines in Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis)

Cryptochrome (Cry), as important flavoprotein, plays a key role in regulating the innate immune response, such as the release of inflammatory cytokines. In the present study, a cryptochrome homologue (EsCry) was identified from Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis, which contained a typical DNA photolyase domain, a FAD binding domain. The transcripts of EsCry were highly expressed at 11:00, and lowest at 3:00 within one day, while those of Interleukin enhancer binding factor (EsILF), Lipopolysaccharide-induced TNF-alpha factor (EsLITAF), Tumor necrosis factor (EsTNF) and Interleukin-16 (EsIL-16) showed a rhythm expression pattern contrary to EsCry. After EsCry was knocked down by dsEsCry injection, mRNA transcripts of Timeless (EsTim), Cycle (EsCyc), Circadian locomotor output cycles kaput (EsClock), Period (EsPer), and EsLITAF, EsTNF, EsILF, EsIL-16, as well as phosphorylation level of Dorsal significantly up-regulated. The transcripts of EsLITAF, EsTNF, EsILF, and EsIL-16 in EsCry-RNAi crabs significantly down-regulated after injection of NF-κB inhibitor. The interactions of EsCyc and EsCry, EsCyc and Dorsal were observed in vitro. These results indicated that EsCry negatively regulated the expression of the cytokine TNF and IL-16 via inhibiting their transcription factor LITAF and ILF through NF-κB signaling pathway, which provide evidences to better understand the circadian regulation mechanism of cytokine production in crabs.

Adenine Fine-Tunes DNA Photolyase's Repair Mechanism

The comparative study of DNA repair by mesophilic and extremophilic photolyases helps us understand the evolution of these enzymes and their role in preserving life on our changing planet. The mechanism of repair of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer lesions in DNA by electron transfer from the flavin adenine dinucleotide cofactor is the subject of intense interest. The role of adenine in mediating this process remains unresolved. Using microsecond molecular dynamics simulations, we find that adenine mediates the electron transfer in both mesophile and extremophile DNA photolyases through a similar mechanism. In fact, in all photolyases studied, the molecular conformations with the largest electronic couplings between the enzyme cofactor and DNA show the presence of adenine in 10-20% of the strongest-coupling tunneling pathways between the atoms of the electron donor and acceptor. Our theoretical analysis finds that adenine serves the critical role of fine-tuning rather than maximizing the donor-acceptor coupling within the range appropriate for the repair function.

Comparing ultrafast excited state quenching of flavin 1,N6-ethenoadenine dinucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide by optical spectroscopy and DFT calculations

Flavins are photoenzymatic cofactors often exploiting the absorption of light to energize photoinduced redox chemistry in a variety of contexts. Both flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and flavin mononucleotide (FMN) are used for this function. The study of these photoenzymes has been facilitated using flavin analogs. Most of these analogs involve modification of the flavin ring, and there is recent evidence that adenine (Ade)-modified FAD can affect enzyme turnover, but so far this has only been shown for enzymes where the adenine and flavin rings are close to each other in a stacked conformation. FAD is also stacked in aqueous solution, and its photodynamics are quite different from unstacked FAD or FMN. Oxidized photoexcited FAD decays rapidly, presumably through PET with Ade as donor and Fl* as acceptor. Definitive identification of the spectral signatures of Ade^∙+ and Fl^∙- radicals is elusive. Here we use the FAD analog Flavin 1,N⁶-Ethenoadenine Dinucleotide (εFAD) to study how different photochemical outcomes depend on the identity of the Ade moiety in stacked FAD and its analog εFAD. We have used UV-Vis transient absorption spectroscopy complemented by TD-DFT calculations to investigate the excited state evolution of the flavins. In FAD*, no radicals were observed, suggesting that FAD* does not undergo PET. εFAD* kinetics showed a broad absorption band that suggests a charge transfer state exists upon photoexcitation with evidence for radical pair formation. Surprisingly, significant triplet flavin was produced from εFAD* We hypothesize that the dipolar (ε)Ade moieties differentially modulate the singlet-triplet energy gap, resulting in different intersystem crossing rates. The additional electron density on the etheno group of εFAD supplies better orbital overlap with the flavin S₁ state, accelerating charge transfer in that molecule.

Theoretical insights into the DNA repair function of Arabidopsis thaliana cryptochrome-DASH

Following the discovery of cryptochrome-DASH (CRYD) as a new type of blue-light receptor cryptochrome, theoretical and experimental findings on CRYD have been reported. Early studies identified CRYD as highly homologous to the DNA repair enzyme photolyases (PLs), suggesting the involvement of CRYD in DNA repair. However, an experimental study reported that CRYD does not exhibit DNA repair activity in vivo. Successful PL-mediated DNA repair requires: (i) the recognition of UV-induced DNA lesions and (ii) an electron transfer reaction. If either of them is inefficient, the DNA repair activity will be low.

To elucidate the functional differences between CRYD and PL, we theoretically investigated the electron transfer reactivity and DNA binding affinity of CRYD and also performed supplementary experiments. The average electronic coupling matrix elements value for Arabidopsis thaliana CRYD (AtCRYD) was estimated to be 5.3 meV, comparable to that of Anacystis nidulans cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer PLs (AnPL) at 4.5 meV, indicating similar electron transfer reactivities. We also confirmed the DNA repair activity of AtCRYD for UV-damaged single-stranded DNA by the experimental analysis. In addition, we investigated the dynamic behavior of AtCRYD and AnPL in complex with double-stranded DNA using molecular dynamics simulations and observed the formation of a transient salt bridge between protein and DNA in AtCRYD, in contrast to AnPL in which it was formed stably. We suggested that the instability of the salt bridge between protein and DNA will lead to reduced DNA binding affinity for AtCRYD.

An Ethenoadenine FAD Analog Accelerates UV Dimer Repair by DNA Photolyase

Reduced anionic flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH^- ) is the critical cofactor in DNA photolyase (PL) for the repair of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD) in UV-damaged DNA. The initial step involves photoinduced electron transfer from *FADH^- to the CPD. The adenine (Ade) moiety is nearly stacked with the flavin ring, an unusual conformation compared to other FAD-dependent proteins. The role of this proximity has not been unequivocally elucidated. Some studies suggest that Ade is a radical intermediate, but others conclude that Ade modulates the electron transfer rate constant (k_ET ) through superexchange. No study has succeeded in removing or modifying this Ade to test these hypotheses. Here, FAD analogs containing either an ethano- or etheno-bridged Ade between the AN1 and AN6 atoms (e-FAD and ε-FAD, respectively) were used to reconstitute apo-PL, giving e-PL and ε-PL respectively. The reconstitution yield of e-PL was very poor, suggesting that the hydrophobicity of the ethano group prevented its uptake, while ε-PL showed 50% reconstitution yield. The substrate binding constants for ε-PL and rPL were identical. ε-PL showed a 15% higher steady-state repair yield compared to FAD-reconstituted photolyase (rPL). The acceleration of repair in ε-PL is discussed in terms of an ε-Ade radical intermediate vs superexchange mechanism.

Electron Transfer Pathways of Cyclobutane Pyrimidine Dimer Photolyase Revisited

The photoinduced electron transfer (ET) reaction of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) photolyase plays an essential role in its DNA repair reaction, and the molecular mechanism of the ET reaction has attracted a large number of experimental and theoretical studies. We investigated the quantum mechanical nature of their ET reactions, characterized by multiple ET pathways of the CPD photolyase derived from Anacystis nidulans. Using the generalized Mulliken-Hush (GMH) method and the bridge green function (GF) methods, we estimated the electronic coupling matrix element, T_DA, to be 36 ± 30 cm^-1 from the donor (FADH^-) to the acceptor (CPD). The estimated ET time was 386 ps, in good agreement with the experimental value (250 ps) in the literature. Furthermore, we performed the molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and ab initio molecular orbital (MO) calculations, and explored the electron tunneling pathway. We examined 20 different structures during the MD trajectory and quantitatively evaluated the electron tunneling currents for each of them. As a result, we demonstrated that the ET route via Asn349 was the dominant pathway among the five major routes via (Adenine/Asn349), (Adenine/Glu283), (Adenine/Glu283/Asn349/Met353), (Met353/Asn349), and (Asn349), indicating that Asn349 is an essential amino acid residue in the ET reaction.

Determinants of Photolyase's DNA Repair Mechanism in Mesophiles and Extremophiles

Light-driven DNA repair by extremophilic photolyases is of tremendous importance for understanding the early development of life on Earth. The mechanism for flavin adenine dinucleotide repair of DNA lesions is the subject of debate and has been studied mainly in mesophilic species. In particular, the role of adenine in the repair process is poorly understood. Using molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, electronic structure calculations, and electron tunneling pathways analysis, we examined adenine's role in DNA repair in four photolyases that thrive at different temperatures. Our results indicate that the contribution of adenine to the electronic coupling between the flavin and the cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer lesion to be repaired is significant in three (one mesophilic and two extremophilic) of the four enzymes studied. Our analysis suggests that thermophilic and hyperthermophilic photolyases have evolved structurally to preserve the functional position (and thus the catalytic function) of adenine at their high temperatures of operation. Water molecules can compete with adenine in establishing the strongest coupling pathway for the electron transfer repair process, but the adenine contribution remains substantial. The present study also reconciles prior seemingly contradictory conclusions on the role of adenine in mesophile electron transfer repair reactions, showing how adenine-mediated superexchange is conformationally gated.

The binding structure and affinity of photodamaged duplex DNA with members of the photolyase/cryptochrome family: A computational study

Photolyases (PHRs) and cryptochromes (CRYs) belong to the same family known as blue-light photoreceptors. Although their amino acid sequences and corresponding structures are similar to each other, they exert different functions. PHRs function as an enzyme to repair UV-induced deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) lesions such as a cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) and a (6-4) photoproduct ((6-4)pp), whereas CRYs are a circadian photoreceptor in plants and animals and at the same time they control the photoperiodic induction of flowering in plants. When a new type cryptochrome was identified, it was assumed that another type of CRYs, cryptochrome-DASH (CRY-DASH), which is categorized as a subfamily of photolyase/cryptochrome family, would possess the DNA photolyase activity. However, CRY-DASH had a weak DNA photolyase activity, but the reason for this is still unclear. To clarify the reason, we performed molecular dynamics (MD) simulations for a complex of CPD-PHR or CRY-DASH with damaged double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) and estimated the binding free energy, ΔG_bind, between the protein and the damaged dsDNA by using a molecular mechanics/Poisson–Boltzmann surface area (MM/PBSA) method. ΔG_bind for both proteins were −35 and 57 kcal mol⁻¹, respectively, indicating that the structural stability of CRY-DASH was lower than that of CPD-PHR upon the damaged dsDNA binding. In particular, the number of amino acid residues relevant to the damaged dsDNA binding on the CRY-DASH surface was smaller than that on CPD-PHR. Therefore, the present result suggests that CRY-DASH has a weak DNA photolyase activity because it has a lower binding affinity than CPD-PHR.

Overlapping Electronic States with Nearly Parallel Transition Dipole Moments in Reduced Anionic Flavin Can Distort Photobiological Dynamics

Chromophoric biomolecules are exploited as reporters of a diverse set of phenomena, acting as internal distance monitors, environment and redox sensors, and endogenous imaging probes. The extent to which they can be exploited is dependent on an accurate knowledge of their fundamental electronic properties. Arguably of greatest importance is a precise knowledge of the direction(s) of the absorption transition dipole moment(s) (TDMs) in the molecular frame of reference. Such is the case for flavins, fluorescent redox cofactors utilized for ground- and excited-state redox and photochemical processes. The directions of the TDMs in oxidized and semiquinone flavins were characterized decades ago, and the details of charge redistribution in these forms have also been studied by Stark spectroscopy. The electronic structure of the fully reduced hydroquinone anionic state, FlH^-, however, has been the subject of unfounded assumptions and estimates about the number and direction of TDMs in FlH^-, as well the electronic structure changes that occur upon light absorption. Here we have used Stark spectroscopy to measure the magnitude and direction of charge redistribution in FlH^- upon optical excitation. These data were analyzed using TD-DFT calculations. The results show unequivocally that not one but two nearly orientation-degenerate electronic transitions are required to explain the 340-500 nm absorption spectral range, demolishing the commonly held assumption of a single transition. The difference dipole moments for these states show that electron density shifts toward the xylene ring for both transitions. These measurements force a reappraisal of previous studies that have used erroneous assumptions and unsubstantiated estimates of these quantities. The results put future optical studies of reduced flavins/flavoproteins on a firm photophysical footing.

Coexistence of Different Electron-Transfer Mechanisms in the DNA Repair Process by Photolyase

DNA photolyase has been the topic of extensive studies due to its important role of repairing photodamaged DNA, and its unique feature of using light as an energy source. A crucial step in the repair by DNA photolyase is the forward electron transfer from its cofactor (FADH(-) ) to the damaged DNA, and the detailed mechanism of this process has been controversial. In the present study, we examine the forward electron transfer in DNA photolyase by carrying out high-level ab initio calculations in combination with a quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) approach, and by measuring fluorescence emission spectra at low temperature. On the basis of these computational and experimental results, we demonstrate that multiple decay pathways exist in DNA photolyase depending on the wavelength at excitation and the subsequent transition. This implies that the forward electron transfer in DNA photolyase occurs not only by superexchange mechanism but also by sequential electron transfer.

Electron transfer mechanisms of DNA repair by photolyase

Photolyase is a flavin photoenzyme that repairs two DNA base damage products induced by ultraviolet (UV) light: cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and 6-4 photoproducts. With femtosecond spectroscopy and site-directed mutagenesis, investigators have recently made significant advances in our understanding of UV-damaged DNA repair, and the entire enzymatic dynamics can now be mapped out in real time. For dimer repair, six elementary steps have been characterized, including three electron transfer reactions and two bond-breaking processes, and their reaction times have been determined. A unique electron-tunneling pathway was identified, and the critical residues in modulating the repair function at the active site were determined. The dynamic synergy between the elementary reactions for maintaining high repair efficiency was elucidated, and the biological nature of the flavin active state was uncovered. For 6-4 photoproduct repair, a proton-coupled electron transfer repair mechanism has been revealed. The elucidation of electron transfer mechanisms and two repair photocycles is significant and provides a molecular basis for future practical applications, such as in rational drug design for curing skin cancer.

Excited-state proton coupled electron transfer between photolyase and the damaged DNA through water wire: a photo-repair mechanism

The photolyase enzyme absorbs blue light to repair damaged DNA through a cyclic electron transfer reaction. A description of the underlying mechanism has proven to be a challenging issue for both experimental and theoretical studies. In the present work, combined CASPT2//CASSCF/AMBER (QM/MM) calculations have been performed for damaged DNA in photolyase. A proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) mechanism has been determined for restoring cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) to two normal thymine bases by irradiation of photolyase. A well-defined water wire between FADH(-) and CPD was determined as a bridge to assist the PCET process within FADH(-) and thereby trigger the forward electron transfer to CPD. The subsequent CPD splitting and the alternation of the H-bond pattern proceed in a concerted way, which makes the productive backward electron transfer occur on an ultrafast timescale. A local minimum of SCT((1)ππ*)-LMin was identified on the pathway of the futile backward electron transfer (BET), which is stabilized by the strong H-bond interaction between the water wire and CPD. As a result, the futile BET process is endothermic by ∼18.0 kcal mol(-1), which is responsible for a 2.4 ns timescale inferred experimentally for the futile BET process. Besides the unbiased interpretation for the majority of the experimental findings, the present study provides a new excited-state PCET mechanism, which leads to a significant step toward a deeper understanding of the photo-repair process of damaged-DNA by the photolyase enzyme.

The mutual co-regulation of extracellular polymeric substances and iron ions in biocorrosion of cast iron pipes

New insights into the biocorrosion process may be gained through understanding of the interaction between extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and iron. Herein, the effect of iron ions on the formation of biofilms and production of EPS was investigated. Additionally, the impact of EPS on the corrosion of cast iron coupons was explored. The results showed that a moderate concentration of iron ions (0.06 mg/L) promoted both biofilm formation and EPS production. The presence of EPS accelerated corrosion during the initial stage, while inhibited corrosion at the later stage. The functional groups of EPS acted as electron shuttles to enable the binding of iron ions. Binding of iron ions with EPS led to anodic dissolution and promoted corrosion, while corrosion was later inhibited through oxygen reduction and availability of phosphorus from EPS. The presence of EPS also led to changes in crystalline phases of corrosion products.

A Novel Approach to Simulate a Charge Transfer in DNA Repair by an Anacystis nidulans Photolyase

An Anacystis nidulans photolyase enzyme containing two chromophore cofactors was simulated for a photoreaction DNA repairing process via molecular dynamics (MD) method. A novel approach has been introduced for the electron transfer between the FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide; flavin) molecule and CPD (cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer). This approach involves four simulation stages with different charges for the FAD and CPD fragments and a role of a charged state of the active cofactor was qualified during the MD modeling. Observations show that flavin has actively participated in a charge transfer process, thereby involving the conformational changes of the DNA and CPD substrate fragment. The DNA conformation behavior has shown to correlate with the electron transfer from flavin to CPD. This is manifested on the similarities of the DNA repairing process by excision repair of the UV photoproducts.

Charge transfer in E. coli DNA photolyase: understanding polarization and stabilization effects via QM/MM simulations

We study fast hole transfer events in E. coli DNA photolyase, a key step in the photoactivation process, using a multiscale computational method that combines nonadiabatic propagation schemes and linear-scaling quantum chemical methods with molecular mechanics force fields. This scheme allows us to follow the time-dependent evolution of the electron hole in an unbiased fashion; that is, no assumptions about hole wave function localization, time scale separation, or adiabaticity of the process have to be made beforehand. DNA photolyase facilitates an efficient long-range charge transport between its flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor and the protein surface via a chain of evolutionary conserved Trp residues on the sub-nanosecond time scale despite the existence of multiple potential trap states. By including a large number of aromatic residues along the charge transfer pathway into the quantum description, we are able to identify the main pathway among alternative possible routes. The simulations show that charge transfer, which is extremely fast in this protein, occurs on the same time scale as the protein response to the electrostatic changes; that is, time-scale separation as often presupposed in charge transfer studies seems to be inappropriate for this system. Therefore, coupled equations of motion, which propagate electrons and nuclei simultaneously, appear to be necessary. The applied computational model is shown to capture the essentials of the reaction kinetics and thermodynamics while allowing direct simulations of charge transfer events on their natural time scale.

Biomining: metal recovery from ores with microorganisms

Biomining is an increasingly applied biotechnological procedure for processing of ores in the mining industry (biohydrometallurgy). Nowadays the production of copper from low-grade ores is the most important industrial application and a significant part of world copper production already originates from heap or dump/stockpile bioleaching. Conceptual differences exist between the industrial processes of bioleaching and biooxidation. Bioleaching is a conversion of an insoluble valuable metal into a soluble form by means of microorganisms. In biooxidation, on the other hand, gold is predominantly unlocked from refractory ores in large-scale stirred-tank biooxidation arrangements for further processing steps. In addition to copper and gold production, biomining is also used to produce cobalt, nickel, zinc, and uranium. Up to now, biomining has merely been used as a procedure in the processing of sulfide ores and uranium ore, but laboratory and pilot procedures already exist for the processing of silicate and oxide ores (e.g., laterites), for leaching of processing residues or mine waste dumps (mine tailings), as well as for the extraction of metals from industrial residues and waste (recycling). This chapter estimates the world production of copper, gold, and other metals by means of biomining and chemical leaching (bio-/hydrometallurgy) compared with metal production by pyrometallurgical procedures, and describes new developments in biomining. In addition, an overview is given about metal sulfide oxidizing microorganisms, fundamentals of biomining including bioleaching mechanisms and interface processes, as well as anaerobic bioleaching and bioleaching with heterotrophic microorganisms.

DNA photolyases and SP lyase: structure and mechanism of light-dependent and independent DNA lyases

Light is essential for many critical biological processes including vision, circadian rhythms, photosynthesis and DNA repair. DNA photolyases use light energy and a fully reduced flavin cofactor to repair the major UV-induced DNA damages, the cis-syn cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and the pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4) photoproducts. Catalysis involves two photoreactions, the photoactivation which leads to the conversion of the flavin cofactor to its catalytic active form and the photorepair whose efficiency depends on a light-harvesting antenna chromophore. Very interestingly, an alternative and light-independent direct reversal mechanism to repair a distinct photolesion is found in bacterial spores, catalyzed by spore photoproduct lyase. This radical SAM enzyme uses an iron-sulfur cluster and S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) to split a specific photoproduct, the so-called spore photoproduct (SP), back to two thymidine residues. The recently solved crystal structure of SP lyase provides new insights into this unique DNA repair mechanism and allows a detailed comparison with DNA photolyases. Similarities as well as divergences between DNA photolyases and SP lyase are highlighted in this review.

Electron tunneling pathways and role of adenine in repair of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer by DNA photolyase

Electron tunneling pathways in enzymes are critical to their catalytic efficiency. Through electron tunneling, photolyase, a photoenzyme, splits UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer into two normal bases. Here, we report our systematic characterization and analyses of photoinitiated three electron transfer processes and cyclobutane ring splitting by following the entire dynamical evolution during enzymatic repair with femtosecond resolution. We observed the complete dynamics of the reactants, all intermediates and final products, and determined their reaction time scales. Using (deoxy)uracil and thymine as dimer substrates, we unambiguously determined the electron tunneling pathways for the forward electron transfer to initiate repair and for the final electron return to restore the active cofactor and complete the catalytic photocycle. Significantly, we found that the adenine moiety of the unusual bent flavin cofactor is essential to mediating all electron-transfer dynamics through a superexchange mechanism, leading to a delicate balance of time scales. The cyclobutane ring splitting takes tens of picoseconds, while electron-transfer dynamics all occur on a longer time scale. The active-site structural integrity, unique electron tunneling pathways, and the critical role of adenine ensure the synergy of these elementary steps in this complex photorepair machinery to achieve maximum repair efficiency which is close to unity. Finally, we used the Marcus electron-transfer theory to evaluate all three electron-transfer processes and thus obtained their reaction driving forces (free energies), reorganization energies, and electronic coupling constants, concluding that the forward and futile back-electron transfer is in the normal region and that the final electron return of the catalytic cycle is in the inverted region.

Excited-state electronic properties of 6-methylisoxanthopterin (6-MI): an experimental and theoretical study

6-Methylisoxanthopterin (6-MI) is a pteridine-based guanine analog that has a red-shifted absorption and high fluorescence quantum yield. Its Watson-Crick base-pairing and base stacking properties are similar to guanine. The fluorescence quantum yield of 6-MI is sensitive to its nearest neighbors and base stacking, making it a very useful real-time probe of DNA structure. The fundamental photophysics underlying this fluorescence quenching by base stacking is not well understood. We have explored the excited-state electronic structure of the 6-MI in frozen 77 K LiCl glasses using Stark spectroscopy. These measurements yielded the direction and degree of charge redistribution for the S(0)→S(1) transition as manifested in the difference dipole moment, Δμ(01), and difference static polarizability, TrΔα. TDDFT (time-dependent density functional theory) was employed to calculate the transition energy, oscillator strength, and the dipole moments of the ground and lowest optically bright excited state of 6-MI (S(0)→S(1)). The direction of Δμ(01) was assigned in the molecular frame based on the Stark data and calculations. These results suggest that the C4═O and C2-NH(2) groups are electron-deficient in the excited state, a very different outcome compared with guanine. This implies that Watson-Crick hydrogen bonding in 6-MI may be modulated by absorption of a photon so as to strengthen base pairing, if only transiently. Solvatochromism was also obtained for the absorption and emission spectra of 6-MI in various solvents and compared with the Stark spectroscopic results using both the Lippert-Mataga and Bakhshiev models.

What is adenine doing in photolyase?

The short answer to the title question is that it acts as an electrostatic bouncer that shoves the charge flow from flavin toward the DNA lesion that photolyase repairs. This explanation is provided by an explicit time-dependent quantum mechanical approach, which is used to investigate the electron transfer process that triggers the repair mechanism. The transfer occurs from the flavin photolyase cofactor to the cyclobutane ring of DNA, previously formed by light-induced cycloaddition of adjacent pyrimidine bases. The electron wave function dynamics accurately accounts for the previously proposed mechanism of transfer via the terminal methyl group of the flavin moiety present in the catalytic electron-donor cofactor, FADH(-), which also contains adenine. This latter moiety, which has often been assumed to be present mainly for structural reasons, instantaneously modifies the interaction between acceptor and donor by a variation of the electrostatic interactions so that the presence of its local atomic charges is necessary to trigger the transfer. In principle, knowledge of the details of the electron transfer dynamics and of the important role of polarization effects can be exploited to improve the efficiency of the repair mechanism in artificial systems.

Expression of the DNA repair enzyme, photolyase, in developmental tissues and larvae, and in response to ambient UV-R in the Antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri

Gene expression of the DNA repair enzyme, photolyase (E.C. 4.1.99.3) was examined in the gonads, eggs, embryos and larval stages of the Antarctic sea urchin, Sterechinus neumayeri. Partial sequencing of the gene revealed two highly conserved regions, including a 300 bp region representing the binding site for the cofactor flavin adenine dinucleotide. The second 1200 bp region, likely representing a second light-harvesting cofactor binding site, was identified in a second sea urchin species, Strongylocentrotus frascicanus. Probes for photolyase were developed from the shorter sequence, and expression in sea urchin developmental tissue and stages, and in response to in situ exposure to ultraviolet radiation was quantified using PCR and RT-qPCR, with concentrations of photolyase normalized to actin concentrations. Photolyase was expressed in all tissues and developmental stages examined. In controlled field-based experiments in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, we found evidence of both constitutive expression of photolyase and induction in response to in situ exposure of embryos to UV-R. Induction of photolyase was observed in response to greater ambient UV-R (such as shallower water depths or sea ice-free regions).

Theoretical study of excitation energy transfer in DNA photolyase

Photolyase (PL) is a DNA repair enzyme which splits UV light-induced thymine dimers on DNA by an electron transfer reaction occurring between the photoactivated FADH(-) cofactor and the DNA dimer in the DNA/PL complex. The crystal structure of the DNA/photolyase complex from Anacystis nidulans has been solved. Here, using the experimental crystal structure, we re-examine the details of the repair electron transfer reaction and address the question of energy transfer from the antenna HDF to the redox active FADH(-) cofactor. The photoactivation of FADH(-) immediately preceding the electron transfer is a key step in the repair mechanism that is largely left unexamined theoretically. An important butterfly thermal motion of flavin is identified in ab initio calculations; we propose its role in the back electron transfer from DNA to photolyase. Molecular dynamics simulation of the whole protein/DNA complex is carried out to obtain relevant cofactor conformations for ZINDO/S spectroscopic absorption and fluorescence calculations. We find that significant thermal broadening of the spectral lines, due to protein dynamics, as well as the alignment of the donor HDF and the acceptor FADH(-) transition dipole moments both contribute to the efficiency of energy transfer. The geometric factor of Förster's dipolar coupling is calculated to be 1.82, a large increase from the experimentally estimated 0.67. Using Förster's mechanism, we find that the energy transfer occurs with remarkable efficiency, comparable with the experimentally determined value of 98%.

Discrimination of class I cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer photolyase from blue light photoreceptors by single methionine residue

DNA photolyase recognizes ultraviolet-damaged DNA and breaks improperly formed covalent bonds within the cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer by a light-activated electron transfer reaction between the flavin adenine dinucleotide, the electron donor, and cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer, the electron acceptor. Theoretical analysis of the electron-tunneling pathways of the DNA photolyase derived from Anacystis nidulans can reveal the active role of the protein environment in the electron transfer reaction. Here, we report the unexpectedly important role of the single methionine residue, Met-353, where busy trafficking of electron-tunneling currents is observed. The amino acid conservation pattern of Met-353 in the homologous sequences perfectly correlates with experimentally verified annotation as photolyases. The bioinformatics sequence analysis also suggests that the residue plays a pivotal role in biological function. Consistent findings from different disciplines of computational biology strongly suggest the pivotal role of Met-353 in the biological function of DNA photolyase.

Characteristic structure and environment in FAD cofactor of (6-4) photolyase along function revealed by resonance Raman spectroscopy

A pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4) photoproduct and a cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) are major DNA lesions induced by ultraviolet irradiation, and (6-4) photolyase, an enzyme with flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) as a cofactor, repairs the former specifically by light illumination. We investigated resonance Raman spectra of (6-4) photolyase from Arabidopsis thaliana having neutral semiquinoid and oxidized forms of FAD, which were selectively intensity enhanced by excitations at 568.2 and 488.0 nm, respectively. DFT calculations were carried out for the first time on the neutral semiquinone. The marker band of a neutral semiquinone at 1606 cm(-1) in H(2)O, whose frequency is the lowest among various flavoenzymes, apparently splits into two comparable bands at 1594 and 1608 cm(-1) in D(2)O, and similarly, that at 1522 cm(-1) in H(2)O does into three bands at 1456, 1508, and 1536 cm(-1) in D(2)O. This D(2)O effect was recognized only after being oxidized once and photoreduced to form a semiquinone again, but not by simple H/D exchange of solvent. Some Raman bands of the oxidized form were observed at significantly low frequencies (1621, 1576 cm(-1)) and with band splittings (1508/1493, 1346/1320 cm(-1)). These Raman spectral characteristics indicate strong H-bonding interactions (at N5-H, N1), a fairly hydrophobic environment, and an electron-lacking feature in benzene ring of the FAD cofactor, which seems to specifically control the reactivity of (6-4) photolyase.

Computational studies of DNA photolyase

The electron transfer catalyzed (ETC) repair of the DNA photolesion cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) is mediated by the enzyme DNA photolyase. Due to its importance as part of the cancer prevention mechanism in many organisms, but also due to its unique mechanism, this DNA photoreactivation is a topic of intense study. The progress in the application of computational methods to three aspects of the ETC repair of CPD is reviewed: (i) electronic structure calculations of the cycloreversion of the CPD radical cation and radical anion, (ii) MD simulations of the DNA photolyase and its complex to photodamaged DNA, and (iii) the structure and dynamics of photodamaged DNA. The contributions of this work to the overall understanding of the reaction and its relationship to the available experimental work are highlighted.

Photoselected electron transfer pathways in DNA photolyase

Cyclobutane dimer photolyases are proteins that bind to UV-damaged DNA containing cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer lesions. They repair these lesions by photo-induced electron transfer. The electron donor cofactor of a photolyase is a two-electron-reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH(-)). When FADH(-) is photo-excited, it transfers an electron from an excited pi --> pi* singlet state to the pyrimidine dimer lesion of DNA. We compute the lowest excited singlet states of FADH(-) using ab initio (time-dependent density functional theory and time-dependent Hartree-Fock), and semiempirical (INDO/S configuration interaction) methods. The calculations show that the two lowest pi --> pi* singlet states of FADH(-) are localized on the side of the flavin ring that is proximal to the dimer lesion of DNA. For the lowest-energy donor excited state of FADH(-), we compute the conformationally averaged electronic coupling to acceptor states of the thymine dimer. The coupling calculations are performed at the INDO/S level, on donor-acceptor cofactor conformations obtained from molecular dynamics simulations of the solvated protein with a thymine dimer docked in its active site. These calculations demonstrate that the localization of the (1)FADH(-)* donor state on the flavin ring enhances the electronic coupling between the flavin and the dimer by permitting shorter electron-transfer pathways to the dimer that have single through-space jumps. Therefore, in photolyase, the photo-excitation itself enhances the electron transfer rate by moving the electron towards the dimer.

Flavin Charge Transfer Transitions Assist DNA Photolyase Electron Transfer

This contribution describes molecular dynamics, semi-empirical and ab-initio studies of the primary photo-induced electron transfer reaction in DNA photolyase. DNA photolyases are FADH(-)-containing proteins that repair UV-damaged DNA by photo-induced electron transfer. A DNA photolyase recognizes and binds to cyclobutatne pyrimidine dimer lesions of DNA. The protein repairs a bound lesion by transferring an electron to the lesion from FADH(-), upon photo-excitation of FADH(-) with 350-450 nm light. We compute the lowest singlet excited states of FADH(-) in DNA photolyase using INDO/S configuration interaction, time-dependent density-functional, and time-dependent Hartree-Fock methods. The calculations identify the lowest singlet excited state of FADH(-) that is populated after photo-excitation and that acts as the electron donor. For this donor state we compute conformationally-averaged tunneling matrix elements to empty electron- acceptor states of a thymine dimer bound to photolyase. The conformational averaging involves different FADH(-) - thymine dimer confromations obtained from molecular dynamics simulations of the solvated protein with a thymine dimer docked in its active site. The tunneling matrix element computations use INDO/S-level Green's function, energy splitting, and Generalized Mulliken-Hush methods. These calculations indicate that photo-excitation of FADH(-) causes a π → π(*) charge-transfer transition that shifts electron density to the side of the flavin isoalloxazine ring that is adjacent to the docked thymine dimer. This shift in electron density enhances the FADH(-) - to - dimer electronic coupling, thus inducing rapid electron transfer.

On the electron tunneling in molecules: a generalized orthogonalization procedure for finding tunneling orbitals

A simple method for finding tunneling orbitals of a long-distance electron transfer system is described. The procedure is an approximate biorthogonalization of many-electron donor and acceptor states in which the corresponding orbitals of the system are obtained; one pair of such corresponding orbitals describes the tunneling electron. Usually, the biorthogonalization is performed on the states that describe simultaneously both donor and acceptor complexes and the bridge connecting them, which make the procedure computationally demanding. In this paper a significant simplification of the procedure is proposed. In the procedure, to identify the tunneling orbitals roughly one half of the system is needed--only donor complex, or acceptor complex, plus part of the bridge. The procedure is practically equivalent to biorthogonalization, but computationally much simpler. Applications are illustrated with the results for a model of biological long-distance electron transfer in Ru-modified azurin, and electron transfer involving heme a of cytochrome c oxidase.

Extracellular polymeric substances mediate bioleaching/biocorrosion via interfacial processes involving iron(III) ions and acidophilic bacteria

Extracellular polymeric substances seem to play a pivotal role in biocorrosion of metals and bioleaching, biocorrosion of metal sulfides for the winning of precious metals as well as acid rock drainage. For better control of both processes, the structure and function of extracellular polymeric substances of corrosion-causing or leaching bacteria are of crucial importance. Our research focused on the extremophilic bacteria Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans, because of the "simplicity" and knowledge about the interactions of these bacteria with their substrate/substratum and their environment. For this purpose, the composition of the corresponding extracellular polymeric substances and their functions were analyzed. The extracellular polymeric substances of both species consist mainly of neutral sugars and lipids. The functions of the exopolymers seem to be: (i) to mediate attachment to a (metal) sulfide surface, and (ii) to concentrate iron(III) ions by complexation through uronic acids or other residues at the mineral surface, thus, allowing an oxidative attack on the sulfide. Consequently, dissolution of the metal sulfide is enhanced, which may result in an acceleration of 20- to 100-fold of the bioleaching process over chemical leaching. Experiments were performed to elucidate the importance of the iron(III) ions complexed by extracellular polymeric substances for strain-specific differences in oxidative activity for pyrite. Strains of A. ferrooxidans with a high amount of iron(III) ions in their extracellular polymeric substances possess greater oxidation activity than those with fewer iron(III) ions. These data provide insight into the function of and consequently the advantages that extracellular polymeric substances provide to bacteria. The role of extracellular polymeric substances for attachment under the conditions of a space station and resulting effects like biofouling, biocorrosion, malodorous gases, etc. will be discussed.

Low-temperature electronic transport through macromolecules and characteristics of intramolecular electron transfer

Long-distance electron transfer (ET) plays an important part in many biological processes. Also, fundamental understanding of ET processes could give grounds for designing miniaturized electronic devices. So far, experimental data on the ET mostly concern ET rates which characterize ET processes as a whole. Here, we develop a different approach which could provide more information about intrinsic characteristics of the long-range intramolecular ET. A starting point of the studies is an obvious resemblance between ET processes and electric transport through molecular wires placed between metallic contacts. Accordingly, the theory of electronic transport through molecular wires is applied to analyze characteristics of a long-range electron transfer through molecular bridges. Assuming a coherent electron tunneling to be a predominant mechanism of ET at low temperatures, it is shown that low-temperature current-voltage characteristics could exhibit a special structure, and the latter contains information concerning intrinsic features of the intramolecular ET. Using the Buttiker dephasing model within the scattering matrix formalism, we analyze the effect of dephasing on the electron transmission function and current-voltage curves.

Light-driven enzymatic catalysis of DNA repair: a review of recent biophysical studies on photolyase

More than 50 years ago, initial experiments on enzymatic photorepair of ultraviolet (UV)-damaged DNA were reported [Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 35 (1949) 73]. Soon after this discovery, it was recognized that one enzyme, photolyase, is able to repair UV-induced DNA lesions by effectively reversing their formation using blue light. The enzymatic process named DNA photoreactivation depends on a non-covalently bound cofactor, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). Flavins are ubiquitous redox-active catalysts in one- and two-electron transfer reactions of numerous biological processes. However, in the case of photolyase, not only the ground-state redox properties of the FAD cofactor are exploited but also, and perhaps more importantly, its excited-state properties. In the catalytically active, fully reduced redox form, the FAD absorbs in the blue and near-UV ranges of visible light. Although there is no direct experimental evidence, it appears generally accepted that starting from the excited singlet state, the chromophore initiates a reductive cleavage of the two major DNA photodamages, cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and (6-4) photoproducts, by short-distance electron transfer to the DNA lesion. Back electron transfer from the repaired DNA segment is believed to eventually restore the initial redox states of the cofactor and the DNA nucleobases, resulting in an overall reaction with net-zero exchanged electrons. Thus, the entire process represents a true catalytic cycle. Many biochemical and biophysical studies have been carried out to unravel the fundamentals of this unique mode of action. The work has culminated in the elucidation of the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme in 1995 that revealed remarkable details, such as the FAD-cofactor arrangement in an unusual U-shaped configuration. With the crystal structure of the enzyme at hand, research on photolyases did not come to an end but, for good reason, intensified: the geometrical structure of the enzyme alone is not sufficient to fully understand the enzyme's action on UV-damaged DNA. Much effort has therefore been invested to learn more about, for example, the geometry of the enzyme-substrate complex, and the mechanism and pathways of intra-enzyme and enzyme <-->DNA electron transfer. Many of the key results from biochemical and molecular biology characterizations of the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex have been summarized in a number of reviews. Complementary to these articles, this review focuses on recent biophysical studies of photoreactivation comprising work performed from the early 1990s until the present.

Assay method for Escherichia coli photolyase activity using single-strand cis-syn cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer DNA as substrate

A high-performance liquid chromatography method for the assay of Escherichia coli photolyase activity was developed. When cis-syn cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer was used as substrate, the Michaelis constant (K(m)) value for the photolyase activity was 100 nM. The linear range of the calibration curve of the photolyase activity was 0.026-6.64 microU/assay tube. The correlation coefficient for this linearity was 0.998. The limit of detection (S/N = 3) was 26 nU/assay tube. The photolyase activity was increased 1.6-fold in the presence of 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolic acid in the enzyme reaction mixture.

Crystal structure of a photolyase bound to a CPD-like DNA lesion after in situ repair

DNA photolyases use light energy to repair DNA that comprises ultraviolet-induced lesions such as the cis-syn cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs). Here we report the crystal structure of a DNA photolyase bound to duplex DNA that is bent by 50 degrees and comprises a synthetic CPD lesion. This CPD lesion is flipped into the active site and split there into two thymines by synchrotron radiation at 100 K. Although photolyases catalyze blue light-driven CPD cleavage only above 200 K, this structure apparently mimics a structural substate during light-driven DNA repair in which back-flipping of the thymines into duplex DNA has not yet taken place.

Identification of a new cryptochrome class. Structure, function, and evolution

Cryptochrome flavoproteins, which share sequence homology with light-dependent DNA repair photolyases, function as photoreceptors in plants and circadian clock components in animals. Here, we coupled sequencing of an Arabidopsis cryptochrome gene with phylogenetic, structural, and functional analyses to identify a new cryptochrome class (cryptochrome DASH) in bacteria and plants, suggesting that cryptochromes evolved before the divergence of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The cryptochrome crystallographic structure, reported here for Synechocystis cryptochrome DASH, reveals commonalities with photolyases in DNA binding and redox-dependent function, despite distinct active-site and interaction surface features. Whole genome transcriptional profiling together with experimental confirmation of DNA binding indicated that Synechocystis cryptochrome DASH functions as a transcriptional repressor.

Evidence of powerful substrate electric fields in DNA photolyase: implications for thymidine dimer repair

DNA photolyase is a flavoprotein that repairs cyclobutylpyrimidine dimers by ultrafast photoinduced electron transfer. One unusual feature of this enzyme is the configuration of the FAD cofactor, where the isoalloxazine and adenine rings are nearly in vdW contact. We have measured the steady-state and transient absorption spectra and excited-state decay kinetics of oxidized (FAD-containing, folate-depleted) Escherichia coli DNA photolyase with and without dinucleotide and polynucleotide single-stranded thymidine dimer substrates. The steady-state absorption spectrum for the enzyme-polynucleotide substrate complex showed a blue shift, as seen previously by Jorns et al. (1). No shift was observed for the dinucleotide substrate, suggesting that there are significant differences in the binding geometry of dinucleotide versus polynucleotide dimer lesions. Evidence was obtained from transient absorption experiments for a long-lived charge-transfer complex involving the isoalloxazine of the FAD cofactor. No evidence of excited-state quenching was measurable upon binding either substrate. To explain these data, we hypothesize the existence of a large substrate electric field in the cavity containing the FAD cofactor. A calculation of the magnitude and direction of this dipolar electric field is consistent with electrochromic band shifts for both S(0) --> S(1) and S(0) --> S(2) transitions. These observations suggest that the substrate dipolar electric field may be a critical component in its electron-transfer-mediated repair by photolyase and that the unique relative orientation of the isoalloxazine and adenine rings may have resulted from the consequences of the dipolar substrate field.