Rational Design of P450 Enzymes for Biotechnology

Enzyme Electrochemistry — Biocatalysis on an Electrode

Oxidoreductase enzymes catalyze single- or multi-electron reduction/oxidation reactions of small molecule inorganic or organic substrates, and they are integral to a wide variety of biological processes including respiration, energy production, biosynthesis, metabolism, and detoxification. All redox enzymes require a natural redox partner such as an electron-transfer protein (e.g. cytochrome, ferredoxin, flavoprotein) or a small molecule cosubstrate (e.g. NAD(P)H, dioxygen) to sustain catalysis, in effect to balance the substrate/product redox half-reaction. In principle, the natural electron-transfer partner may be replaced by an electrochemical working electrode. One of the great strengths of this approach is that the rate of catalysis (equivalent to the observed electrochemical current) may be probed as a function of applied potential through linear sweep and cyclic voltammetry, and insight to the overall catalytic mechanism may be gained by a systematic electrochemical study coupled with theoretical analysis. In this review, the various approaches to enzyme electrochemistry will be discussed, including direct and indirect (mediated) experiments, and a brief coverage of the theory relevant to these techniques will be presented. The importance of immobilizing enzymes on the electrode surface will be presented and the variety of ways that this may be done will be reviewed. The importance of chemical modification of the electrode surface in ensuring an environment conducive to a stable and active enzyme capable of functioning natively will be illustrated. Fundamental research into electrochemically driven enzyme catalysis has led to some remarkable practical applications. The glucose oxidase enzyme electrode is a spectacularly successful application of enzyme electrochemistry. Biosensors based on this technology are used worldwide by sufferers of diabetes to provide rapid and accurate analysis of blood glucose concentrations. Other applications of enzyme electrochemistry are in the sensing of macromolecular complexation events such as antigen–antibody binding and DNA hybridization. The review will include a selection of enzymes that have been successfully investigated by electrochemistry and, where appropriate, discuss their development towards practical biotechnological applications.

Electrochemistry of heme–thiolate proteins

Heme-thiolate proteins (HTPs) play critical biological roles by catalyzing challenging chemical reactions. The ability of HTPs to selectively oxidize inert substrates under mild conditions has led to much research aimed at the development of useful in vitro oxidation technology. Very complex electron transfer machinery is required to support HTP chemistry, and electrochemical methods provide many of the needed components. The challenge is to find a system that has good electrode-enzyme electronic coupling that, in turn, would drive catalytic turnover at relatively high rates. Several systems reviewed herein have shown promise in experimental work on components that could be part of a molecular machine for the selective oxidation of organic substrates.