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Single Proteoliposome High-Content Analysis Reveals Differences in the Homo-Oligomerization of GPCRs. Biophys J 2019; 115:300-312. [PMID: 30021106 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2018.05.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) control vital cellular signaling pathways. GPCR oligomerization is proposed to increase signaling diversity. However, many reports have arrived at disparate conclusions regarding the existence, stability, and stoichiometry of GPCR oligomers, partly because of cellular complexity and ensemble averaging of intrareconstitution heterogeneities that complicate the interpretation of oligomerization data. To overcome these limitations, we exploited fluorescence-microscopy-based high-content analysis of single proteoliposomes. This allowed multidimensional quantification of intrinsic monomer-monomer interactions of three class A GPCRs (β2-adrenergic receptor, cannabinoid receptor type 1, and opsin). Using a billion-fold less protein than conventional assays, we quantified oligomer stoichiometries, association constants, and the influence of two ligands and membrane curvature on oligomerization, revealing key similarities and differences for three GPCRs with decidedly different physiological functions. The assays introduced here will assist with the quantitative experimental observation of oligomerization for transmembrane proteins in general.
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Grigoryev PN, Khisamieva GA, Zefirov AL. Septin Polymerization Slows Synaptic Vesicle Recycling in Motor Nerve Endings. Acta Naturae 2019; 11:54-62. [PMID: 31413880 PMCID: PMC6643342 DOI: 10.32607/20758251-2019-11-2-54-62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Septins are GTP-binding proteins recognized as a component of the cytoskeleton. Despite the fact that septins are highly expressed by neurons and can interact with the proteins that participate in synaptic vesicle exocytosis and endocytosis, the role of septins in synaptic transmission and the synaptic vesicle recycling mechanisms is poorly understood. In this study, neurotransmitter release and synaptic vesicle exocytosis and endocytosis were investigated by microelectrode intracellular recording of end-plate potentials and fluorescent confocal microscopy in mouse diaphragm motor nerve endings during septin polymerization induced by forchlorfenuron application. It was shown that forchlorfenuron application reduces neurotransmission during prolonged high-frequency (20 and 50 pulses/s) stimulation. Application of pairs of short high-frequency stimulation trains showed that forchlorfenuron slows the replenishment of the readily releasable pool. Forchlorfenuron enhanced FM 1-43 fluorescent dye loading by synaptic vesicle endocytosis but decreased dye unloading from the preliminarily stained nerve endings by synaptic vesicle exocytosis. It was concluded that the septin polymerization induced by forchlorfenuron application slows the rate of synaptic vesicle recycling in motor nerve endings due to the impairment of synaptic vesicle transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. N. Grigoryev
- Kazan State Medical University, Butlerova Str. 49, Kazan, 420012, Russia
| | - G. A. Khisamieva
- Kazan State Medical University, Butlerova Str. 49, Kazan, 420012, Russia
| | - A. L. Zefirov
- Kazan State Medical University, Butlerova Str. 49, Kazan, 420012, Russia
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3
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Chabanon M, Stachowiak JC, Rangamani P. Systems biology of cellular membranes: a convergence with biophysics. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. SYSTEMS BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2017; 9:10.1002/wsbm.1386. [PMID: 28475297 PMCID: PMC5561455 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Systems biology and systems medicine have played an important role in the last two decades in shaping our understanding of biological processes. While systems biology is synonymous with network maps and '-omics' approaches, it is not often associated with mechanical processes. Here, we make the case for considering the mechanical and geometrical aspects of biological membranes as a key step in pushing the frontiers of systems biology of cellular membranes forward. We begin by introducing the basic components of cellular membranes, and highlight their dynamical aspects. We then survey the functions of the plasma membrane and the endomembrane system in signaling, and discuss the role and origin of membrane curvature in these diverse cellular processes. We further give an overview of the experimental and modeling approaches to study membrane phenomena. We close with a perspective on the converging futures of systems biology and membrane biophysics, invoking the need to include physical variables such as location and geometry in the study of cellular membranes. WIREs Syst Biol Med 2017, 9:e1386. doi: 10.1002/wsbm.1386 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan Chabanon
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jeanne C. Stachowiak
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Padmini Rangamani
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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4
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Song K, Russo G, Krauss M. Septins As Modulators of Endo-Lysosomal Membrane Traffic. Front Cell Dev Biol 2016; 4:124. [PMID: 27857942 PMCID: PMC5093113 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2016.00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Septins constitute a family of GTP-binding proteins, which assemble into non-polar filaments in a nucleotide-dependent manner. These filaments can be recruited to negatively charged membrane surfaces. When associated with membranes septin filaments can act as diffusion barriers, which confine subdomains of distinct biological functions. In addition, they serve scaffolding roles by recruiting cytosolic proteins and other cytoskeletal elements. Septins have been implicated in a large variety of membrane-dependent processes, including cytokinesis, signaling, cell migration, and membrane traffic, and several family members have been implicated in disease. However, surprisingly little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying their biological functions. This review summarizes evidence in support of regulatory roles of septins during endo-lysosomal sorting, with a particular focus on phosphoinositides, which serve as spatial landmarks guiding septin recruitment to distinct subcellular localizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyungyeun Song
- Leibniz-Institut für Molekulare Pharmakologie Berlin, Germany
| | - Giulia Russo
- Leibniz-Institut für Molekulare Pharmakologie Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Krauss
- Leibniz-Institut für Molekulare Pharmakologie Berlin, Germany
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5
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Arias CI, Siri SO, Conde C. Involvement of SARA in Axon and Dendrite Growth. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138792. [PMID: 26405814 PMCID: PMC4583221 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
SARA (Smad Anchor for Receptor Activation) plays a crucial role in Rab5-mediated endocytosis in cell lines localizing to early endosomes where it regulates morphology and function. Here, we analyzed the role of SARA during neuronal development and tested whether it functions as a regulator of endocytic trafficking of selected axonal and membrane proteins. Suppression of SARA perturbs the appearance of juxtanuclear endocytic recycling compartments and the neurons show long axons with large growth cones. Furthermore, surface distribution of the cell adhesion molecule L1 in axons and the fusion of vesicles containing transferring receptor (TfR) in dendrites were increased in neurons where SARA was silenced. Conversely, SARA overexpression generated large early endosomes and reduced neurite outgrowth. Taken together, our findings suggest a significant contribution of SARA to key aspects of neuronal development, including neurite formation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sebastián Omar Siri
- Laboratorio Neurobiología, INIMEC-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Biomédicas de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Cecilia Conde
- Laboratorio Neurobiología, INIMEC-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Biomédicas de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
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6
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Baltierra-Uribe SL, García-Vásquez MDJ, Castrejón-Jiménez NS, Estrella-Piñón MP, Luna-Herrera J, García-Pérez BE. Mycobacteria entry and trafficking into endothelial cells. Can J Microbiol 2014; 60:569-77. [PMID: 25113069 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2014-0087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Endothelial cells are susceptible to infection by mycobacteria, but the endocytic mechanisms that mycobacteria exploit to enter host cells and their mechanisms of intracellular transport are completely unknown. Using pharmacological inhibitors, we determined that the internalization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), Mycobacterium smegmatis (MSM), and Mycobacterium abscessus (MAB) is dependent on the cytoskeleton and is differentially inhibited by cytochalasin D, nocodazole, cycloheximide, wortmannin, and amiloride. Using confocal microscopy, we investigated their endosomal trafficking by analyzing Rab5, Rab7, LAMP-1, and cathepsin D. Our results suggest that MSM exploits macropinocytosis to enter endothelial cells and that the vacuoles containing these bacteria fuse with lysosomes. Conversely, the entry of MTB seems to depend on more than one endocytic route, and the observation that only a subset of the intracellular bacilli was associated with phagolysosomes suggests that these bacteria are able to inhibit endosomal maturation to persist intracellularly. The route of entry for MAB depends mainly on microtubules, which suggests that MAB uses a different trafficking pathway. However, MAB is also able to inhibit endosomal maturation and can replicate intracellularly. Together, these findings provide the first evidence that mycobacteria modulate proteins of host endothelial cells to enter and persist within these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shantal Lizbeth Baltierra-Uribe
- Department of Immunology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Prolongación de Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N, 11340 México, D.F., México
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Popovic D, Dikic I. TBC1D5 and the AP2 complex regulate ATG9 trafficking and initiation of autophagy. EMBO Rep 2014; 15:392-401. [PMID: 24603492 DOI: 10.1002/embr.201337995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The RabGAP protein TBC1D5 controls cellular endomembrane trafficking processes and binds the retromer subunit VPS29 and the ubiquitin-like protein ATG8 (LC3). Here, we describe that TBC1D5 also associates with ATG9 and the active ULK1 complex during autophagy. Moreover, ATG9 and TBC1D5 interact with clathrin and the AP2 complex. Depletion of TBC1D5 leads to missorting of ATG9 to late endosomes upon activation of autophagy, whereas inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis or AP2 depletion alters ATG9 trafficking and its association with TBC1D5. Taken together, our data show that TBC1D5 and the AP2 complex are important novel regulators of the rerouting of ATG9-containing vesicular carriers toward sites of autophagosome formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris Popovic
- Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (BMLS) and Institute of Biochemistry II Goethe University School of Medicine, Frankfurt, Germany
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Luz-Madrigal A, Asanov A, Camacho-Zarco AR, Sampieri A, Vaca L. A cholesterol recognition amino acid consensus domain in GP64 fusion protein facilitates anchoring of baculovirus to mammalian cells. J Virol 2013; 87:11894-907. [PMID: 23986592 PMCID: PMC3807332 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01356-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Baculoviridae is a large family of double-stranded DNA viruses that selectively infect insects. Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) is the best-studied baculovirus from the family. Many studies over the last several years have shown that AcMNPV can enter a wide variety of mammalian cells and deliver genetic material for foreign gene expression. While most animal viruses studied so far have developed sophisticated mechanisms to selectively infect specific cells and tissues in an organism, AcMNPV can penetrate and deliver foreign genes into most cells studied to this date. The details about the mechanisms of internalization have been partially described. In the present study, we have identified a cholesterol recognition amino acid consensus (CRAC) domain present in the AcMNPV envelope fusion protein GP64. We demonstrated the association of a CRAC domain with cholesterol, which is important to facilitate the anchoring of the virus at the mammalian cell membrane. Furthermore, this initial anchoring favors AcMNPV endocytosis via a dynamin- and clathrin-dependent mechanism. Under these conditions, efficient baculovirus-driven gene expression is obtained. In contrast, when cholesterol is reduced from the plasma membrane, AcMNPV enters the cell via a dynamin- and clathrin-independent mechanism. The result of using this alternative internalization pathway is a reduced level of baculovirus-driven gene expression. This study is the first to document the importance of a novel CRAC domain in GP64 and its role in modulating gene delivery in AcMNPV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agustin Luz-Madrigal
- Department of Biology and Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering, University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio, USA
- Department of Zoology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | | | - Aldo R. Camacho-Zarco
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Protein Structure Determination, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Alicia Sampieri
- Instituto de Fisiologia Celular, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Ciudad Universitaria, Distrito Federal, Mexico
| | - Luis Vaca
- Instituto de Fisiologia Celular, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Ciudad Universitaria, Distrito Federal, Mexico
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Nie W, Deters AM. Tamarind Seed Xyloglucans Promote Proliferation and Migration of Human Skin Cells through Internalization via Stimulation of Proproliferative Signal Transduction Pathways. Dermatol Res Pract 2013; 2013:359756. [PMID: 24106497 PMCID: PMC3782838 DOI: 10.1155/2013/359756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Revised: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 06/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Xyloglucans (XGs) of Tamarindus indica L. Fabaceae are used as drug vehicles or as ingredients of cosmetics. Two xyloglucans were extracted from T. indica seed with cold water (TSw) and copper complex precipitation (TSc). Both were analyzed in regard to composition and influence on cell viability, proliferation, cell cycle progression, migration, MAPK phosphorylation, and gene expression of human skin keratinocytes (NHEK and HaCaT) and fibroblasts (NHDF) in vitro. TSw and TSc differed in molecular weight, rhamnose content, and ratios of xylose, arabinose, galactose, and glucose. Both XGs improved keratinocytes and fibroblast proliferation, promoted the cell cycle, and stimulated migration and intracellular enzyme activity of NHDF after endosomal uptake. Only TSw significantly enhanced HaCaT migration and extracellular enzyme activity of NHDF and HaCaT. TSw and TSc predominantly enhanced the phosphorylation of molecules that referred to Erk signaling in NHEK. In NHDF parts of the integrin signaling and SAPK/JNK pathway were affected. Independent of cell type TSw marginally regulated the expression of genes, which referred to membrane proteins, cytoskeleton, cytokine signaling, and ECM as well as to processes of metabolism and transcription. Results show that T. indica xyloglucans promote skin regeneration by a direct influence on cell proliferation and migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- W. Nie
- Westfalian Wilhelms University of Muenster, Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry, Hittorfstraße 56, 48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - A. M. Deters
- Westfalian Wilhelms University of Muenster, Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry, Hittorfstraße 56, 48149 Muenster, Germany
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10
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Rodrigues AA, Clemente TM, dos Santos MA, Machado FC, Gomes RGB, Moreira HHT, Cruz MC, Brígido PC, dos Santos PCF, Martins FA, Bahia D, Maricato JT, Janini LMR, Reboredo EH, Mortara RA, da Silva CV. A recombinant protein based on Trypanosoma cruzi P21 enhances phagocytosis. PLoS One 2012; 7:e51384. [PMID: 23251513 PMCID: PMC3519637 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background P21 is a secreted protein expressed in all developmental stages of Trypanosoma cruzi. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of the recombinant protein based on P21 (P21-His6) on inflammatory macrophages during phagocytosis. Findings Our results showed that P21-His6 acts as a phagocytosis inducer by binding to CXCR4 chemokine receptor and activating actin polymerization in a way dependent onthe PI3-kinase signaling pathway. Conclusions Thus, our results shed light on the notion that native P21 is a component related to T. cruzi evasion from the immune response and that CXCR4 may be involved in phagocytosis. P21-His6 represents an important experimental control tool to study phagocytosis signaling pathways of different intracellular parasites and particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adele A. Rodrigues
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Tatiana M. Clemente
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Marlus A. dos Santos
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Fabrício C. Machado
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Rafael G. B. Gomes
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | | | - Mário C. Cruz
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Paula C. Brígido
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Paulo C. F. dos Santos
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Flávia A. Martins
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Diana Bahia
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana T. Maricato
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz M. R. Janini
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eduardo H. Reboredo
- Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Renato A. Mortara
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina - Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Claudio V. da Silva
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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11
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Abstract
Endocytosis and endosomal trafficking play a multitude of roles in cellular function beyond regulating entry of essential nutrients. In this review, we discuss the cell biological principles of endosomal trafficking, the neuronal adaptations to endosomal organization, and the role of endosomal trafficking in neural development. In particular, we consider how cell fate decisions, polarity, migration, and axon outgrowth and guidance are influenced by five endosomal tricks: dynamic modulation of receptor levels by endocytosis and recycling, cargo-specific responses via cargo-specific endocytic regulators, cell-type-specific endocytic regulation, ligand-specific endocytic regulation, and endosomal regulation of ligand processing and trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Choo Yap
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia, 409 Lane Road, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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12
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Rayahin JE, Buhrman JS, Gemeinhart RA. Hybrid nanocrystals: University of Kentucky US20060280680A1. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2012; 22:341-8. [PMID: 22364361 DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2012.665877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
This patent application claims an interesting and novel combination of passive accumulation of drug nanocrystals within diseased tissue, in combination with active uptake of the nanocrystals by diseased cells. The patent application further claims the hybrid nanocrystals combining imaging or stabilizing molecules as inclusions in the crystal matrix. There is a focus on cancer chemotherapy and imaging, but the initial claims are not disease specific. In this patent evaluation, the novelty and utility of this application is examined, while the state of the art in nanocrystal formulations and formulation is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie E Rayahin
- University of Illinois, Department of Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Chicago, IL 60612-7231, USA
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13
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Beck R, Bruegger B, Wieland FT. Membrane deformation and separation. F1000 BIOLOGY REPORTS 2010; 2. [PMID: 20948799 PMCID: PMC2950036 DOI: 10.3410/b2-35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Biological membranes are highly dynamic (e.g., during cell division, organelle biosynthesis, vesicular transport, and neurotransmitter release). They can be shaped into protein-coated transport vesicles or tubules and undergo regulated fusion. The life of transport vesicles depends on highly specific and tightly regulated protein machineries, which not only shape the donor membrane into nascent budding structures but also help to overcome the energy barrier to break the bilayers apart in order to pinch off nascent vesicles. Ultimately, vesicular membranes have to fuse with a target lipid bilayer, a process that again requires remodeling. Here, we highlight recent insights into mechanisms that lead to membrane deformation in the process of vesicular budding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Beck
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine333 Cedar Street New Haven, CT 06520USA
| | - Britta Bruegger
- Heidelberg University Biochemistry Center (BZH)Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 HeidelbergGermany
| | - Felix T Wieland
- Heidelberg University Biochemistry Center (BZH)Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 HeidelbergGermany
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