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Afzal Z, Huguet EL. Bioengineering liver tissue by repopulation of decellularised scaffolds. World J Hepatol 2023; 15:151-179. [PMID: 36926238 PMCID: PMC10011915 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v15.i2.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Liver transplantation is the only curative therapy for end stage liver disease, but is limited by the organ shortage, and is associated with the adverse consequences of immunosuppression. Repopulation of decellularised whole organ scaffolds with appropriate cells of recipient origin offers a theoretically attractive solution, allowing reliable and timely organ sourcing without the need for immunosuppression. Decellularisation methodologies vary widely but seek to address the conflicting objectives of removing the cellular component of tissues whilst keeping the 3D structure of the extra-cellular matrix intact, as well as retaining the instructive cell fate determining biochemicals contained therein. Liver scaffold recellularisation has progressed from small rodent in vitro studies to large animal in vivo perfusion models, using a wide range of cell types including primary cells, cell lines, foetal stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells. Within these models, a limited but measurable degree of physiologically significant hepatocyte function has been reported with demonstrable ammonia metabolism in vivo. Biliary repopulation and function have been restricted by challenges relating to the culture and propagations of cholangiocytes, though advances in organoid culture may help address this. Hepatic vasculature repopulation has enabled sustainable blood perfusion in vivo, but with cell types that would limit clinical applications, and which have not been shown to have the specific functions of liver sinusoidal endothelial cells. Minority cell groups such as Kupffer cells and stellate cells have not been repopulated. Bioengineering by repopulation of decellularised scaffolds has significantly progressed, but there remain significant experimental challenges to be addressed before therapeutic applications may be envisaged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeeshan Afzal
- Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Centre; Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Emmanuel Laurent Huguet
- Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Centre; Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
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Guizani I, Fourti N, Zidi W, Feki M, Allal-Elasmi M. SARS-CoV-2 and pathological matrix remodeling mediators. Inflamm Res 2021; 70:847-858. [PMID: 34286362 PMCID: PMC8294315 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-021-01487-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recognizing only sharp elevation in a short period of time, the COVID-19 SARS-CoV-2 propagation is more and more marked in the whole world. Induced inflammation afterwards infection engenders a high infiltration of immune cells and cytokines that triggers matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) activation. These endopeptidases are mediators of the lung extracellular matrix (ECM), a basic element for alveoli structure and gas exchange. METHODS When immune cells, MMPs, secreted cytokines and several other mediators are gathered a pathological matrix remodeling occurs. This phenomenon tends to tissue destruction in the first place and a pulmonary hypertrophy and fibrosis in the second place. FINDINGS After pathological matrix remodeling establishment, pathological diseases take place even after infection state. Since post COVID-19 pulmonary fibrosis is an emerging complication of the disease, there is an urge to better understand and characterize the implication of ECM remodeling during SARS-CoV-2 infection. CONCLUSION Targeting MMPs and their inhibitors could be a probable solution for occurred events since there are many cured patients that remain with severe sequels even after the end of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imen Guizani
- LR99ES11, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, La Rabta Hospital, University of Tunis El Manar, Jebbari, 1007, Tunis, Tunisia
- Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Natural Sciences, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Nesrine Fourti
- LR99ES11, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, La Rabta Hospital, University of Tunis El Manar, Jebbari, 1007, Tunis, Tunisia
- Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Natural Sciences, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Wiem Zidi
- LR99ES11, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, La Rabta Hospital, University of Tunis El Manar, Jebbari, 1007, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Moncef Feki
- LR99ES11, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, La Rabta Hospital, University of Tunis El Manar, Jebbari, 1007, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Monia Allal-Elasmi
- LR99ES11, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, La Rabta Hospital, University of Tunis El Manar, Jebbari, 1007, Tunis, Tunisia.
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Wu B, Jin L, Ding K, Zhou Y, Yang L, Lei Y, Guo Y, Wang Y. Extracellular matrix coating improves the biocompatibility of polymeric heart valves. J Mater Chem B 2020; 8:10616-10629. [PMID: 33146226 DOI: 10.1039/d0tb01884h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Prosthetic heart valve replacement is an effective therapy for patients with valvular heart disease. New-type polymer materials provide potential choices of material for preparing prosthetic heart valves. In this study, we focused on enhancing the biocompatibility of polystyrene-block-isobutylene-block-styrene (SIBS) by surface modification with an extracellular matrix (ECM). Experimental results demonstrated that the ECM coating increased the adsorption resistance against protein and platelets. SIBS coated with an ECM adsorbed much less bovine serum albumin and fibrinogen (5.38 μg cm-2 and 31.53 μg cm-2, respectively) than the original material (90.84 μg cm-2 and 132.38 μg cm-2, respectively). The relative platelet adsorption of the ECM-modified SIBS was lower than that of SIBS (0.04 versus 0.10). Moreover, the surface coating could also reduce endothelial cytotoxicity, suppress the immune response, and potentially induce tissue regeneration. In conclusion, ECM coating improved the biocompatibility of SIBS effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binggang Wu
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, No. 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu 610064, P. R. China. and Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 37 Guoxue Alley, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China
| | - Linhe Jin
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, No. 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu 610064, P. R. China.
| | - Kailei Ding
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, No. 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu 610064, P. R. China.
| | - Yonghua Zhou
- Beijing Huiyu Biomedical Technologies LLC, 1707 street, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100000, P. R. China
| | - Li Yang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, No. 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu 610064, P. R. China.
| | - Yang Lei
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, No. 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu 610064, P. R. China.
| | - Yingqiang Guo
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 37 Guoxue Alley, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China
| | - Yunbing Wang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, No. 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu 610064, P. R. China.
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White LJ, Keane TJ, Smoulder A, Zhang L, Castleton AA, Reing JE, Turner NJ, Dearth CL, Badylak SF. The impact of sterilization upon extracellular matrix hydrogel structure and function. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.regen.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Zhou Y, Horowitz JC, Naba A, Ambalavanan N, Atabai K, Balestrini J, Bitterman PB, Corley RA, Ding BS, Engler AJ, Hansen KC, Hagood JS, Kheradmand F, Lin QS, Neptune E, Niklason L, Ortiz LA, Parks WC, Tschumperlin DJ, White ES, Chapman HA, Thannickal VJ. Extracellular matrix in lung development, homeostasis and disease. Matrix Biol 2018. [PMID: 29524630 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The lung's unique extracellular matrix (ECM), while providing structural support for cells, is critical in the regulation of developmental organogenesis, homeostasis and injury-repair responses. The ECM, via biochemical or biomechanical cues, regulates diverse cell functions, fate and phenotype. The composition and function of lung ECM become markedly deranged in pathological tissue remodeling. ECM-based therapeutics and bioengineering approaches represent promising novel strategies for regeneration/repair of the lung and treatment of chronic lung diseases. In this review, we assess the current state of lung ECM biology, including fundamental advances in ECM composition, dynamics, topography, and biomechanics; the role of the ECM in normal and aberrant lung development, adult lung diseases and autoimmunity; and ECM in the regulation of the stem cell niche. We identify opportunities to advance the field of lung ECM biology and provide a set recommendations for research priorities to advance knowledge that would inform novel approaches to the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic lung diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhou
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States.
| | - Jeffrey C Horowitz
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Michigan, United States.
| | - Alexandra Naba
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, United States.
| | | | - Kamran Atabai
- Lung Biology Center, University of California, San Francisco, United States.
| | | | | | - Richard A Corley
- Systems Toxicology & Exposure Science, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, United States.
| | - Bi-Sen Ding
- Weill Cornell Medical College, United States.
| | - Adam J Engler
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, University of California, San Diego, United States.
| | - Kirk C Hansen
- Biochemistry & Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Denver, United States.
| | - James S Hagood
- Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, University of California San Diego, United States.
| | - Farrah Kheradmand
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Baylor College of Medicine, United States.
| | - Qing S Lin
- Division of Lung Diseases, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, United States.
| | - Enid Neptune
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, United States.
| | - Laura Niklason
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale University, United States.
| | - Luis A Ortiz
- Division of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, United States.
| | - William C Parks
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, United States.
| | - Daniel J Tschumperlin
- Department of Physiology & Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, United States.
| | - Eric S White
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Michigan, United States.
| | - Harold A Chapman
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, United States.
| | - Victor J Thannickal
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States.
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Dziki JL, Giglio RM, Sicari BM, Wang DS, Gandhi RM, Londono R, Dearth CL, Badylak SF. The Effect of Mechanical Loading Upon Extracellular Matrix Bioscaffold-Mediated Skeletal Muscle Remodeling. Tissue Eng Part A 2017; 24:34-46. [PMID: 28345417 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2017.0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests that site-appropriate loading of implanted extracellular matrix (ECM) bioscaffolds and the surrounding microenvironment is an important tissue remodeling determinant, although the role at the cellular level in ECM-mediated skeletal muscle remodeling remains unknown. This study evaluates crosstalk between progenitor cells and macrophages during mechanical loading in ECM-mediated skeletal muscle repair. Myoblasts were exposed to solubilized ECM bioscaffolds and were mechanically loaded at 10% strain, 1 Hz for 5 h. Conditioned media was collected and applied to bone marrow-derived macrophages followed by immunolabeling for proinflammatory M1-like markers and proremodeling M2-like markers. Macrophages were subjected to the same loading protocol and their secreted products were collected for myoblast migration, proliferation, and differentiation analysis. A mouse hind limb unloading volumetric muscle loss model was used to evaluate the effect of loading upon the skeletal muscle microenvironment after ECM implantation. Animals were sacrificed at 14 or 180 days. Isometric torque production was tested and tissue sections were immunolabeled for macrophage phenotype and muscle fiber content. Results show that loading augments the ability of myoblasts to promote an M2-like macrophage phenotype following exposure to ECM bioscaffolds. Mechanically loaded macrophages promote myoblast chemotaxis and differentiation. Lack of weight bearing impaired muscle remodeling as indicated by Masson's Trichrome stain. Isometric torque was significantly increased following ECM implantation when compared to controls, a response not present in the hind limb-unloaded group. This work provides an important mechanistic insight of the effects of rehabilitation upon ECM-mediated remodeling and could have broader implications in clinical practice, advocating multidisciplinary approaches to regenerative medicine, emphasizing rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna L Dziki
- 1 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,2 Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Ross M Giglio
- 1 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Brian M Sicari
- 1 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,3 Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Derek S Wang
- 1 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Riddhi M Gandhi
- 1 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,2 Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Ricardo Londono
- 1 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Christopher L Dearth
- 1 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,3 Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,4 DoD-VA Extremity Trauma and Amputation Center of Excellence, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center/Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences , Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Stephen F Badylak
- 1 McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,2 Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,3 Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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Faulk DM, Wildemann JD, Badylak SF. Decellularization and cell seeding of whole liver biologic scaffolds composed of extracellular matrix. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2015; 5:69-80. [PMID: 25941434 PMCID: PMC4415199 DOI: 10.1016/j.jceh.2014.03.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The definitive treatment for patients with end-stage liver disease is orthotropic transplantation. However, this option is limited by the disparity between the number of patients needing transplantation and the number of available livers. This issue is becoming more severe as the population ages and as the number of new cases of end-stage liver failure increases. Patients fortunate enough to receive a transplant are required to receive immunosuppressive therapy and must live with the associated morbidity. Whole organ engineering of the liver may offer a solution to this liver donor shortfall. It has been shown that perfusion decellularization of a whole allogeneic or xenogeneic liver generates a three-dimensional ECM scaffold with intact macro and micro architecture of the native liver. A decellularized liver provides an ideal transplantable scaffold with all the necessary ultrastructure and signaling cues for cell attachment, differentiation, vascularization, and function. In this review, an overview of complementary strategies for creating functional liver grafts suitable for transplantation is provided. Early milestones have been met by combining stem and progenitor cells with increasingly complex scaffold materials and culture conditions.
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Key Words
- BAL, biohybrid artificial liver
- BMC, basement membrane complex
- CHAPS, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl) dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate
- DAMP, damage associated molecular pattern
- ECM, extracellular matrix
- HMECs, human microvascular endothelial cells
- NPCs, non-parenchymal cells
- PLECM, porcine-liver-derived extracellular matrix
- SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate
- SEC, sinusoidal endothelial cell
- SEM, scanning electron microscopy
- biologic scaffold
- decellularization
- extracellular matrix
- liver tissue engineering
- organ engineering
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Affiliation(s)
- Denver M. Faulk
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA,McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Justin D. Wildemann
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Stephen F. Badylak
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA,McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA,Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA,Address for correspondence: Stephen F. Badylak, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA. Tel.: +412 624 5252; fax: +412 624 5256.
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8
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Extracellular matrix as a driver for lung regeneration. Ann Biomed Eng 2014; 43:568-76. [PMID: 25344351 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-014-1167-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix has manifold roles in tissue mechanics, guidance of cellular behavior, developmental biology, and regenerative medicine. Over the past several decades, various pre-clinical and clinical studies have shown that many connective tissues may be replaced and/or regenerated using suitable extracellular matrix scaffolds. More recently, decellularization of lung tissue has shown that gentle removal of cells can leave behind a "footprint" within the matrix that may guide cellular adhesion, differentiation and homing following cellular repopulation. Fundamental issues like understanding matrix composition and micro-mechanics remain difficult to tackle, largely because of a lack of available assays and tools for systematically characterizing intact matrix from tissues and organs. This review will critically examine the role of engineered and native extracellular matrix in tissue and lung regeneration, and provide insights into directions for future research and translation.
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Faulk DM, Londono R, Wolf MT, Ranallo CA, Carruthers CA, Wildemann JD, Dearth CL, Badylak SF. ECM hydrogel coating mitigates the chronic inflammatory response to polypropylene mesh. Biomaterials 2014; 35:8585-95. [PMID: 25043571 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.06.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 06/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Polypropylene has been used as a surgical mesh material for several decades. This non-degradable synthetic polymer provides mechanical strength, a predictable host response, and its use has resulted in reduced recurrence rates for ventral hernia and pelvic organ prolapse. However, polypropylene and similar synthetic materials are associated with a chronic local tissue inflammatory response and dense fibrous tissue deposition. These outcomes have prompted variations in mesh design to minimize the surface area interface and increase integration with host tissue. In contrast, biologic scaffold materials composed of extracellular matrix (ECM) are rapidly degraded in-vivo and are associated with constructive tissue remodeling and minimal fibrosis. The objective of the present study was to assess the effects of an ECM hydrogel coating on the long-term host tissue response to polypropylene mesh in a rodent model of abdominal muscle injury. At 14 days post implantation, the ECM coated polypropylene mesh devices showed a decreased inflammatory response as characterized by the number and distribution of M1 macrophages (CD86+/CD68+) around mesh fibers when compared to the uncoated mesh devices. At 180 days the ECM coated polypropylene showed decreased density of collagen and amount of mature type I collagen deposited between mesh fibers when compared to the uncoated mesh devices. This study confirms and extends previous findings that an ECM coating mitigates the chronic inflammatory response and associated scar tissue deposition characteristic of polypropylene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denver M Faulk
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Ricardo Londono
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Matthew T Wolf
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Christian A Ranallo
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Christopher A Carruthers
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Justin D Wildemann
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Christopher L Dearth
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Stephen F Badylak
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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