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Purohit SK, Corbett AJ, Slobedman B, Abendroth A. Varicella Zoster Virus infects mucosal associated Invariant T cells. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1121714. [PMID: 37006246 PMCID: PMC10063790 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1121714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionMucosal Associated Invariant T (MAIT) cells are innate-like T cells that respond to conserved pathogen-derived vitamin B metabolites presented by the MHC class I related-1 molecule (MR1) antigen presentation pathway. Whilst viruses do not synthesize these metabolites, we have reported that varicella zoster virus (VZV) profoundly suppresses MR1 expression, implicating this virus in manipulation of the MR1:MAIT cell axis. During primary infection, the lymphotropism of VZV is likely to be instrumental in hematogenous dissemination of virus to gain access to cutaneous sites where it clinically manifests as varicella (chickenpox). However, MAIT cells, which are found in the blood and at mucosal and other organ sites, have yet to be examined in the context of VZV infection. The goal of this study was to examine any direct impact of VZV on MAIT cells.MethodsUsing flow cytometry, we interrogated whether primary blood derived MAIT cells are permissive to infection by VZV whilst further analysing differential levels of infection between various MAIT cell subpopulations. Changes in cell surface extravasation, skin homing, activation and proliferation markers after VZV infection of MAIT cells was also assessed via flow cytometry. Finally the capacity of MAIT cells to transfer infectious virus was tested through an infectious center assay and imaged via fluorescence microscopy.ResultsWe identify primary blood-derived MAIT cells as being permissive to VZV infection. A consequence of VZV infection of MAIT cells was their capacity to transfer infectious virus to other permissive cells, consistent with MAIT cells supporting productive infection. When subgrouping MAIT cells by their co- expression of a variety cell surface markers, there was a higher proportion of VZV infected MAIT cells co-expressing CD4+ and CD4+/CD8+ MAIT cells compared to the more phenotypically dominant CD8+ MAIT cells, whereas infection was not associated with differences in co-expression of CD56 (MAIT cell subset with enhanced responsiveness to innate cytokine stimulation), CD27 (co-stimulatory) or PD-1 (immune checkpoint). Infected MAIT cells retained high expression of CCR2, CCR5, CCR6, CLA and CCR4, indicating a potentially intact capacity for transendothelial migration, extravasation and trafficking to skin sites. Infected MAIT cells also displayed increased expression of CD69 (early activation) and CD71 (proliferation) markers.DiscussionThese data identify MAIT cells as being permissive to VZV infection and identify impacts of such infection on co- expressed functional markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivam K. Purohit
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Alexandra J. Corbett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- *Correspondence: Allison Abendroth, ; Barry Slobedman,
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- *Correspondence: Allison Abendroth, ; Barry Slobedman,
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Muacevic A, Adler JR. Clinical Conundrums: Differentiating Monkeypox From Similarly Presenting Infections. Cureus 2022; 14:e29929. [PMID: 36348880 PMCID: PMC9634140 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.29929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Post the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, there arises the concern of a new epidemic as cases of monkeypox are being confirmed, globally. With the initial clinical manifestation of monkeypox resembling that of the common cold or seasonal flu, recognizing alternative differential diagnoses is imperative as a medical health practitioner. The characteristic monkeypox maculopapular rash with the progression to vesicles and pustules before scabbing can be described in several other infections. Understanding the disease progression and distinct clinical presentation of monkeypox in its various stages may allow for a more expedient diagnosis among healthcare providers. Though eradicated, the clinical presentation of smallpox is the most similar to that of monkeypox; however, smallpox is no longer a concern for the general population. Other conditions such as molluscum contagiosum, syphilis, varicella zoster, measles, rickettsialpox, and scabies can present with rashes that may resemble singular or multiple states of the monkeypox rash progression. The ability to correctly diagnose an individual's condition promptly may allow healthcare providers to provide correct supportive therapies or treatments.
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Rahangdale RR, Tender T, Balireddy S, Pasupuleti M, Hariharapura RC. The Interplay Between Stress and Immunity Triggers Herpes Zoster Infection in COVID-19 Patients: A Review. Can J Microbiol 2022; 68:303-314. [PMID: 35167378 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2021-0242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a potential health threat in the highly mobile society of the world. Also, there are concerns regarding the co-infections occurring in COVID-19 patients. Herpes zoster (HZ) is now being reported as a co-infection in COVID-19 patients. It is a varicella-zoster virus induced viral infection affecting older people and immunocompromised individuals. Reactivation of HZ infection in COVID-19 patients are emerging and the mechanism of reactivation is still unknown. A most convincing argument would be, increased psychological and immunological stress leading to HZ in COVID-19 patients, and this review justifies this argument.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakesh Ravishankar Rahangdale
- Manipal Academy of Higher Education, 76793, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Manipal, India;
| | - Tenzin Tender
- Manipal Academy of Higher Education, 76793, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Manipal, India;
| | - Sridevi Balireddy
- Manipal Academy of Higher Education, 76793, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Manipal, India;
| | - Mukesh Pasupuleti
- Central Drug Research Institute, 30082, Microbiology Division, Lucknow, India;
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Categorizing sequences of concern by function to better assess mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis. Infect Immun 2021; 90:e0033421. [PMID: 34780277 PMCID: PMC9119117 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00334-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
To identify sequences with a role in microbial pathogenesis, we assessed the adequacy of their annotation by existing controlled vocabularies and sequence databases. Our goal was to regularize descriptions of microbial pathogenesis for improved integration with bioinformatic applications. Here, we review the challenges of annotating sequences for pathogenic activity. We relate the categorization of more than 2,750 sequences of pathogenic microbes through a controlled vocabulary called Functions of Sequences of Concern (FunSoCs). These allow for an ease of description by both humans and machines. We provide a subset of 220 fully annotated sequences in the supplemental material as examples. The use of this compact (∼30 terms), controlled vocabulary has potential benefits for research in microbial genomics, public health, biosecurity, biosurveillance, and the characterization of new and emerging pathogens.
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5
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Whole Transcriptome Analyses Reveal Differential mRNA and microRNA Expression Profiles in Primary Human Dermal Fibroblasts Infected with Clinical or Vaccine Strains of Varicella Zoster Virus. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8040183. [PMID: 31658769 PMCID: PMC6963325 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8040183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Licensed live attenuated vaccines have been developed to prevent varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection, which causes chickenpox and shingles. The genomic sequences of both clinical- and vaccine-derived VZV strains have been analyzed previously. To further characterize the molecular signatures and complexity of wildtype (clinical) versus attenuated (vaccine-derived) VZV-mediated host cellular responses, we performed high-throughput next generation sequencing to quantify and compare the expression patterns of mRNAs and microRNAs (miRNAs) in primary human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) infected with wildtype (YC01 low passage) and attenuated (YC01 high passage, SuduVax, and VarilRix) VZV strains. 3D-multidimensional scaling of the differentially expressed genes demonstrated the distinct grouping of wildtype and attenuated strains. In particular, we observed that HDFs infected with attenuated strains had more differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in the retinoic-acid inducible gene–I-like receptor and interferon-mediated signaling pathways compared with wildtype strains. Additionally, miRNA expression patterns were profiled following the infection of HDFs with VZV. Small RNA sequencing identified that several miRNAs were upregulated, including miR-146a-5p, which has been associated with other herpesvirus infections, whereas let-7a-3p was downregulated in both wildtype and attenuated VZV-infected cells. This study identified genes and miRNAs that may be essential in VZV pathogenesis.
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Cunningham AL, Heineman TC, Lal H, Godeaux O, Chlibek R, Hwang SJ, McElhaney JE, Vesikari T, Andrews C, Choi WS, Esen M, Ikematsu H, Choma MK, Pauksens K, Ravault S, Salaun B, Schwarz TF, Smetana J, Abeele CV, Van den Steen P, Vastiau I, Weckx LY, Levin MJ. Immune Responses to a Recombinant Glycoprotein E Herpes Zoster Vaccine in Adults Aged 50 Years or Older. J Infect Dis 2019. [PMID: 29529222 PMCID: PMC5946839 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The herpes zoster subunit vaccine (HZ/su), consisting of varicella-zoster virus glycoprotein E (gE) and AS01B Adjuvant System, was highly efficacious in preventing herpes zoster in the ZOE-50 and ZOE-70 trials. We present immunogenicity results from those trials. Methods Participants (ZOE-50: ≥50; ZOE-70: ≥70 years of age) received 2 doses of HZ/su or placebo, 2 months apart. Serum anti-gE antibodies and CD4 T cells expressing ≥2 of 4 activation markers assessed (CD42+) after stimulation with gE-peptides were measured in subcohorts for humoral (n = 3293) and cell-mediated (n = 466) immunogenicity. Results After vaccination, 97.8% of HZ/su and 2.0% of placebo recipients showed a humoral response. Geometric mean anti-gE antibody concentrations increased 39.1-fold and 8.3-fold over baseline in HZ/su recipients at 1 and 36 months post-dose 2, respectively. A gE-specific CD42+ T-cell response was shown in 93.3% of HZ/su and 0% of placebo recipients. Median CD42+ T-cell frequencies increased 24.6-fold (1 month) and 7.9-fold (36 months) over baseline in HZ/su recipients and remained ≥5.6-fold above baseline in all age groups at 36 months. The proportion of CD4 T cells expressing all 4 activation markers increased over time in all age groups. Conclusions Most HZ/su recipients developed robust immune responses persisting for 3 years following vaccination. Clinical Trials Registration NCT01165177; NCT01165229.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Roman Chlibek
- Faculty of Military Health Sciences, University of Defense, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Shinn-Jang Hwang
- Department of Family Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, and National Yang Ming University School of Medicine, Taiwan
| | | | - Timo Vesikari
- Vaccine Research Center, University of Tampere, Finland
| | | | - Won Suk Choi
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul
| | - Meral Esen
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University Clinic of Tuebingen, Germany
| | | | | | - Karlis Pauksens
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Uppsala University Hospital, Sweden
| | | | | | - Tino F Schwarz
- Central Laboratory and Vaccination Centre, Klinikum Würzburg Mitte, Standort Juliusspital, Germany
| | - Jan Smetana
- Faculty of Military Health Sciences, University of Defense, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | | | | | | | | | - Myron J Levin
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora.,Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora
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Haredy AM, Takei M, Iwamoto SI, Ohno M, Kosaka M, Hirota K, Koketsu R, Okuno T, Ikuta K, Yamanishi K, Ebina H. Quantification of a cell-mediated immune response against varicella zoster virus by assessing responder CD4 high memory cell proliferation in activated whole blood cultures. Vaccine 2019; 37:5225-5232. [PMID: 31358406 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.07.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes zoster (HZ) is caused by reactivation of a latent varicella zoster virus (VZV). The potential to develop HZ increases with age due to waning of memory cell-mediated immunity (CMI), mainly the CD4 response. Therefore, VZV-CD4-memory T cells (CD4-M) count in blood could serve as a barometer for HZ protection. However, direct quantification of these cells is known to be difficult because they are few in number in the blood. We thus developed a method to measure the proliferation level of CD4-M cells responding to VZV antigen in whole blood culture. METHODS Blood samples were collected from 32 children (2-15 years old) with or without a history of varicella infection, 18 young adults (28-45 years old), and 80 elderly (50-86 years old) with a history of varicella infection. The elderly group was vaccinated, and blood samples were taken 2 months and 1 year after VZV vaccination. Then, 1 mL of blood was mixed with VZV, diluted 1/10 in medium, and cultured. CD4-M cells were identified and measured by flow cytometry. RESULTS There was distinct proliferation of CD3+CD4highCD45RA-RO+ (CD4high-M) cells specific to VZV antigen at day 9. The majority of CD4high-M cells had the effector memory phenotype CCR7- and was granzyme B-positive. CD4high-M cells were detected in blood culture from varicella-immune but not varicella-non-immune children. Meanwhile, a higher level of CD4high-M proliferation was observed in young adults than in the elderly. The CD4high-M proliferation level was boosted 2 months after VZV vaccination and maintained for at least 1 year in the elderly. CONCLUSION Quantifying VZV responder CD4high -M cell proliferation is a convenient way to measure VZV CMI using small blood volumes. Our method can be applied to measure VZV vaccine-induced CMI in the elderly. Clinical study registry numbers: (www.clinicaltrials.jp) 173532 and 183985.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad M Haredy
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan.
| | | | | | | | - Mitsuyo Kosaka
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kazue Hirota
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Ritsuko Koketsu
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Toshiomi Okuno
- Department of Microbiology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Ikuta
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Koichi Yamanishi
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Ebina
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
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8
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Derakhshani S, Kurz A, Japtok L, Schumacher F, Pilgram L, Steinke M, Kleuser B, Sauer M, Schneider-Schaulies S, Avota E. Measles Virus Infection Fosters Dendritic Cell Motility in a 3D Environment to Enhance Transmission to Target Cells in the Respiratory Epithelium. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1294. [PMID: 31231395 PMCID: PMC6560165 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmission of measles virus (MV) from dendritic to airway epithelial cells is considered as crucial to viral spread late in infection. Therefore, pathways and effectors governing this process are promising targets for intervention. To identify these, we established a 3D respiratory tract model where MV transmission by infected dendritic cells (DCs) relied on the presence of nectin-4 on H358 lung epithelial cells. Access to recipient cells is an important prerequisite for transmission, and we therefore analyzed migration of MV-exposed DC cultures within the model. Surprisingly, enhanced motility toward the epithelial layer was observed for MV-infected DCs as compared to their uninfected siblings. This occurred independently of factors released from H358 cells indicating that MV infection triggered cytoskeletal remodeling associated with DC polarization enforced velocity. Accordingly, the latter was also observed for MV-infected DCs in collagen matrices and was particularly sensitive to ROCK inhibition indicating infected DCs preferentially employed the amoeboid migration mode. This was also implicated by loss of podosomes and reduced filopodial activity both of which were retained in MV-exposed uninfected DCs. Evidently, sphingosine kinase (SphK) and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) as produced in response to virus-infection in DCs contributed to enhanced velocity because this was abrogated upon inhibition of sphingosine kinase activity. These findings indicate that MV infection promotes a push-and-squeeze fast amoeboid migration mode via the SphK/S1P system characterized by loss of filopodia and podosome dissolution. Consequently, this enables rapid trafficking of virus toward epithelial cells during viral exit.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andreas Kurz
- Department for Biotechnology and Biophysics, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Lukasz Japtok
- Department of Toxicology, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Fabian Schumacher
- Department of Toxicology, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Nuthetal, Germany.,Department of Molecular Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Lisa Pilgram
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Maria Steinke
- Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research ISC, Chair of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, University Hospital Wuerzburg, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Burkhard Kleuser
- Department of Toxicology, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Markus Sauer
- Department for Biotechnology and Biophysics, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | | | - Elita Avota
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
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Truong NR, Smith JB, Sandgren KJ, Cunningham AL. Mechanisms of Immune Control of Mucosal HSV Infection: A Guide to Rational Vaccine Design. Front Immunol 2019; 10:373. [PMID: 30894859 PMCID: PMC6414784 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) is a highly prevalent sexually transmitted infection that aside from causing cold sores and genital lesions, causes complications in the immunocompromised and has facilitated a large proportion of HIV acquisition globally. Despite decades of research, there is no prophylactic HSV vaccine ready for use in humans, leaving many questioning whether a prophylactic vaccine is an achievable goal. A previous HSV vaccine trial did have partial success in decreasing acquisition of HSV2–promising evidence that vaccines can prevent acquisition. However, there is still an incomplete understanding of the immune response pathways elicited by HSV after initial mucosal infection and how best to replicate these responses with a vaccine, such that acquisition and colonization of the dorsal root ganglia could be prevented. Another factor to consider in the rational design of an HSV vaccine is adjuvant choice. Understanding the immune responses elicited by different adjuvants and whether lasting humoral and cell-mediated responses are induced is important, especially when studies of past trial vaccines found that a sufficiently protective cell-mediated response was lacking. In this review, we discuss what is known of the immune control involved in initial herpes lesions and reactivation, including the importance of CD4 and CD8 T cells, and the interplay between innate and adaptive immunity in response to primary infection, specifically focusing on the viral relay involved. Additionally, a summary of previous and current vaccine trials, including the components used, immune responses elicited and the feasibility of prophylactic vaccines looking forward, will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi R Truong
- Centre for Virus Research, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jacinta B Smith
- Centre for Virus Research, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Kerrie J Sandgren
- Centre for Virus Research, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Anthony L Cunningham
- Centre for Virus Research, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Hellesen A, Bratland E. The potential role for infections in the pathogenesis of autoimmune Addison's disease. Clin Exp Immunol 2018; 195:52-63. [PMID: 30144040 DOI: 10.1111/cei.13207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune Addison's disease (AAD), or primary adrenocortical insufficiency, is a classical organ-specific autoimmune disease with 160 years of history. AAD is remarkably homogeneous with one major dominant self-antigen, the cytochrome P450 21-hydroxylase enzyme, which is targeted by both autoantibodies and autoreactive T cells. Like most autoimmune diseases, AAD is thought to be caused by an unfortunate combination of genetic and environmental factors. While the number of genetic associations with AAD is increasing, almost nothing is known about environmental factors. A major environmental factor commonly proposed for autoimmune diseases, based partly on experimental and clinical data and partly on shared pathways between anti-viral immunity and autoimmunity, is viral infections. However, there are few reports associating viral infections to AAD, and it has proved difficult to establish which immunological processes that could link any viral infection with the initiation or progression of AAD. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge on the underlying mechanisms of AAD and take a closer look on the potential involvement of viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Hellesen
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,K.G. Jebsen Senter for Autoimmune Sykdommer, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - E Bratland
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,K.G. Jebsen Senter for Autoimmune Sykdommer, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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Tunneling Nanotubes as a Novel Route of Cell-to-Cell Spread of Herpesviruses. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.00090-18. [PMID: 29491165 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00090-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Various types of intercellular connections that are essential for communication between cells are often utilized by pathogens. Recently, a new type of cellular connection, consisting of long, thin, actin-rich membrane extensions named tunneling nanotubes (TNTs), has been shown to play an important role in cell-to-cell spread of HIV and influenza virus. In the present report, we show that TNTs are frequently formed by cells infected by an alphaherpesvirus, bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1). Viral proteins, such as envelope glycoprotein E (gE), capsid protein VP26, and tegument protein Us3, as well as cellular organelles (mitochondria) were detected by immunofluorescence and live-cell imaging of nanotubes formed by bovine primary fibroblasts and oropharynx cells (KOP cells). Time-lapse confocal studies of live cells infected with fluorescently labeled viruses showed that viral particles were transmitted via TNTs. This transfer also occurred in the presence of neutralizing antibodies, which prevented free entry of BoHV-1. We conclude that TNT formation contributes to successful cell-to-cell spread of BoHV-1 and demonstrate for the first time the participation of membrane nanotubes in intercellular transfer of a herpesvirus in live cells.IMPORTANCE Efficient transmission of viral particles between cells is an important factor in successful infection by herpesviruses. Herpesviruses can spread by the free-entry mode or direct cell-to-cell transfer via cell junctions and long extensions of neuronal cells. In this report, we show for the first time that an alphaherpesvirus can also spread between various types of cells using tunneling nanotubes, intercellular connections that are utilized by HIV and other viruses. Live-cell monitoring revealed that viral transmission occurs between the cells of the same type as well as between epithelial cells and fibroblasts. This newly discovered route of herpesviruses spread may contribute to efficient transmission despite the presence of host immune responses, especially after reactivation from latency that developed after primary infection. Long-range communication provided by TNTs may facilitate the spread of herpesviruses between many tissues and organs of an infected organism.
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Wei L, Zhao J, Wu W, Zhang Y, Fu X, Chen L, Wang X. Decreased absolute numbers of CD3 + T cells and CD8 + T cells during aging in herpes zoster patients. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15039. [PMID: 29118328 PMCID: PMC5678144 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15390-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes zoster (HZ) is an infectious dermatosis with high incidence worldwide. Age is a key risk factor for HZ, and postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is the main sequelae. Until now, no index has been available to predict the pathogenesis of PHN, and rare reports have focused on the immune response during aging and PHN. In this study, we selected immunoglobulin and complement proteins as markers for humoral immunity, while T lymphocyte subsets and natural killer (NK) cells were selected as markers for cell immunity, to systematically study the characteristics of immune responses in the peripheral blood of HZ patients. Our data showed that the absolute number of CD3+ T cells and CD8+ T cells decreased during aging and PHN. This implies that more attention should be paid to prevent the occurrence of PHN, especially in the aged population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wei
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jianguang Zhao
- Department of Dermatology, The Dermatovenereology Hospital, Quzhou, China
| | - Wei Wu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xuyan Fu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lifeng Chen
- Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoting Wang
- Medical Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
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Cavalcanti BM, Cruzat A, Sahin A, Pavan-Langston D, Samayoa E, Hamrah P. In vivo confocal microscopy detects bilateral changes of corneal immune cells and nerves in unilateral herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ocul Surf 2017; 16:101-111. [PMID: 28923503 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2017.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Revised: 08/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To analyze bilateral corneal immune cell and nerve alterations in patients with unilateral herpes zoster ophthalmicus (HZO) by laser in vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM) and their correlation with corneal sensation and clinical findings. MATERIALS AND METHODS This is a prospective, cross-sectional, controlled, single-center study. Twenty-four eyes of 24 HZO patients and their contralateral clinically unaffected eyes and normal controls (n = 24) were included. Laser IVCM (Heidelberg Retina Tomograph/Rostock Cornea Module), corneal esthesiometry (Cochet-Bonnet) were performed. Changes in corneal dendritiform cell (DC) density and morphology, number and length of subbasal nerve fibers and their correlation to corneal sensation, pain, lesion location, disease duration, and number of episodes were analyzed. RESULTS HZO-affected and contralateral eyes showed a significant increase in DC influx of the central cornea as compared to controls (147.4 ± 33.9, 120.1 ± 21.2, and 23.0 ± 3.6 cells/mm2; p < 0.0001). In HZO eyes DCs were larger in area (319.4 ± 59.8 μm2; p < 0.001) and number of dendrites (3.5 ± 0.4 n/cell; p = 0.01) as compared to controls (52.2 ± 11.7, and 2.3 ± 0.5). DC density and size showed moderate negative correlation with total nerve length (R = -0.43 and R = -0.57, respectively; all p < 0.001). A higher frequency of nerve beading and activated DCs close to nerve fibers were detected specifically in pain patients. CONCLUSIONS Chronic unilateral HZO causes significant bilateral increase in corneal DC density and decrease of the corneal subbasal nerves as compared to controls. Negative correlation was observed for DC density and size to nerve parameters, suggesting interplay between the immune and nervous systems. Patients with chronic pain also showed increased nerve beading and activated DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernardo M Cavalcanti
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Post-Graduate Program, Surgery Department, Pernambuco Federal University (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Andrea Cruzat
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Afsun Sahin
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Koc University Medical School, Research Center for Translational Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey; Boston Image Reading Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Deborah Pavan-Langston
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Eric Samayoa
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Pedram Hamrah
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Boston Image Reading Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA; Cornea Service, New England Eye Center, Department of Ophthalmology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
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14
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Li S, Sullivan NL, Rouphael N, Yu T, Banton S, Maddur MS, McCausland M, Chiu C, Canniff J, Dubey S, Liu K, Tran V, Hagan T, Duraisingham S, Wieland A, Mehta AK, Whitaker JA, Subramaniam S, Jones DP, Sette A, Vora K, Weinberg A, Mulligan MJ, Nakaya HI, Levin M, Ahmed R, Pulendran B. Metabolic Phenotypes of Response to Vaccination in Humans. Cell 2017; 169:862-877.e17. [PMID: 28502771 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Herpes zoster (shingles) causes significant morbidity in immune compromised hosts and older adults. Whereas a vaccine is available for prevention of shingles, its efficacy declines with age. To help to understand the mechanisms driving vaccinal responses, we constructed a multiscale, multifactorial response network (MMRN) of immunity in healthy young and older adults immunized with the live attenuated shingles vaccine Zostavax. Vaccination induces robust antigen-specific antibody, plasmablasts, and CD4+ T cells yet limited CD8+ T cell and antiviral responses. The MMRN reveals striking associations between orthogonal datasets, such as transcriptomic and metabolomics signatures, cell populations, and cytokine levels, and identifies immune and metabolic correlates of vaccine immunity. Networks associated with inositol phosphate, glycerophospholipids, and sterol metabolism are tightly coupled with immunity. Critically, the sterol regulatory binding protein 1 and its targets are key integrators of antibody and T follicular cell responses. Our approach is broadly applicable to study human immunity and can help to identify predictors of efficacy as well as mechanisms controlling immunity to vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuzhao Li
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Nicole L Sullivan
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Nadine Rouphael
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Decatur, GA 30030, USA
| | - Tianwei Yu
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30030, USA
| | - Sophia Banton
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Mohan S Maddur
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Megan McCausland
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Christopher Chiu
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Jennifer Canniff
- University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Sheri Dubey
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Vaccines-West Point, PA, Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ 07033, USA
| | - Ken Liu
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - ViLinh Tran
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Thomas Hagan
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Sai Duraisingham
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Andreas Wieland
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Aneesh K Mehta
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Jennifer A Whitaker
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Shankar Subramaniam
- Department of Bioengineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Department of Nanoengineering, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Dean P Jones
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Alessandro Sette
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute of Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Kalpit Vora
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Vaccines-West Point, PA, Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ 07033, USA
| | - Adriana Weinberg
- University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Mark J Mulligan
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Decatur, GA 30030, USA
| | - Helder I Nakaya
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508, Brazil; Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Myron Levin
- University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Rafi Ahmed
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Bali Pulendran
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
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15
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Meysman P, Fedorov D, Van Tendeloo V, Ogunjimi B, Laukens K. Immunological evasion of immediate-early varicella zoster virus proteins. Immunogenetics 2016; 68:483-486. [PMID: 27020058 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-016-0911-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes the childhood disease commonly known as chickenpox and can later in life reactivate as herpes zoster. The adaptive immune system is known to play an important role in suppressing VZV reactivation. A central aspect of this system is the presentation of VZV-derived peptides by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins. Here, we investigate if key VZV proteins have evolved their amino acid sequence to avoid presentation by MHC based on predictive models of MHC-peptide affinity. This study shows that the immediate-early proteins of all characterized VZV strains are profoundly depleted for high-affinity MHC-I-restricted epitopes. The same depletion can be found in its closest animal analog, the simian varicella virus. Further orthology analysis towards other herpes viruses suggests that the protein amino acid frequency is one of the primary drivers of targeted epitope depletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter Meysman
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium. .,Biomedical Informatics Research Center Antwerp (biomina), University of Antwerp/Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium.
| | - Dmitry Fedorov
- Institute of Cellular Neurosciences, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Viggo Van Tendeloo
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology (LEH), Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (VAXINFECTIO), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Benson Ogunjimi
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology (LEH), Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (VAXINFECTIO), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Centre for Health Economics Research and Modeling Infectious Diseases (CHERMID), Vaccine & Infectious Disease Institute (VAXINFECTIO), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Interuniversity Institute for Biostatistics and Statistical Bioinformatics, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Kris Laukens
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Biomedical Informatics Research Center Antwerp (biomina), University of Antwerp/Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
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16
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Sei JJ, Cox KS, Dubey SA, Antonello JM, Krah DL, Casimiro DR, Vora KA. Effector and Central Memory Poly-Functional CD4(+) and CD8(+) T Cells are Boosted upon ZOSTAVAX(®) Vaccination. Front Immunol 2015; 6:553. [PMID: 26579128 PMCID: PMC4629102 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
ZOSTAVAX(®) is a live attenuated varicella-zoster virus (VZV) vaccine that is licensed for the protection of individuals ≥50 years against shingles and its most common complication, postherpetic neuralgia. While IFNγ responses increase upon vaccination, the quality of the T cell response has not been elucidated. By using polychromatic flow cytometry, we characterized the breadth, magnitude, and quality of ex vivo CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell responses induced 3-4 weeks after ZOSTAVAX vaccination of healthy adults. We show, for the first time that the highest frequencies of VZV-specific CD4(+) T cells were poly-functional CD154(+)IFNγ(+)IL-2(+)TNFα(+) cells, which were boosted upon vaccination. The CD4(+) T cells were broadly reactive to several VZV proteins, with immediate early (IE) 63 ranking the highest among them in the fold rise of poly-functional cells, followed by IE62, gB, open reading frame (ORF) 9, and gE. We identified a novel poly-functional ORF9-specific CD8(+) T cell population in 62% of the subjects, and these were boosted upon vaccination. Poly-functional CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells produced significantly higher levels of IFNγ, IL-2, and TNFα compared to mono-functional cells. After vaccination, a boost in the expression of IFNγ by poly-functional IE63- and ORF9-specific CD4(+) T cells and IFNγ, IL-2, and TNFα by ORF9-specific poly-functional CD8(+) T cells was observed. Responding poly-functional T cells exhibited both effector (CCR7(-)CD45RA(-)CD45RO(+)), and central (CCR7(+)CD45RA(-)CD45RO(+)) memory phenotypes, which expressed comparable levels of cytokines. Altogether, our studies demonstrate that a boost in memory poly-functional CD4(+) T cells and ORF9-specific CD8(+) T cells may contribute toward ZOSTAVAX efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet J Sei
- Merck Research Laboratories, Department Vaccine Analytical Development, Merck & Co., Inc. , Kenilworth, NJ , USA
| | - Kara S Cox
- Merck Research Laboratories, Department of Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Merck & Co., Inc. , Kenilworth, NJ , USA
| | - Sheri A Dubey
- Merck Research Laboratories, Department of Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Merck & Co., Inc. , Kenilworth, NJ , USA
| | - Joseph M Antonello
- Merck Research Laboratories, Department of Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Merck & Co., Inc. , Kenilworth, NJ , USA
| | - David L Krah
- Merck Research Laboratories, Department Vaccine Analytical Development, Merck & Co., Inc. , Kenilworth, NJ , USA
| | - Danilo R Casimiro
- Merck Research Laboratories, Department of Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Merck & Co., Inc. , Kenilworth, NJ , USA
| | - Kalpit A Vora
- Merck Research Laboratories, Department of Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Merck & Co., Inc. , Kenilworth, NJ , USA
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17
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Kalogeropoulos CD, Bassukas ID, Moschos MM, Tabbara KF. Eye and Periocular Skin Involvement in Herpes Zoster Infection. MEDICAL HYPOTHESIS, DISCOVERY & INNOVATION OPHTHALMOLOGY JOURNAL 2015; 4:142-156. [PMID: 27800502 PMCID: PMC5087099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Herpes zoster ophthalmicus (HZO) is a clinical manifestation of the reactivation of latent varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection and is more common in people with diminished cell-mediated immunity. Lesions and pain correspond to the affected dermatomes, mostly in first or second trigeminal branch and progress from maculae, papules to vesicles and form pustules, and crusts. Complications are cutaneous, visceral, neurological, ocular, but the most debilitating is post-herpetic neuralgia. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus may affect all the ophthalmic structures, but most severe eye-threatening complications are panuveitis, acute retinal necrosis (ARN) and progressive outer retinal necrosis (PORN) as well. Antiviral medications remain the primary therapy, mainly useful in preventing ocular involvement when begun within 72 hours after the onset of the rash. Timely diagnosis and management of HZO are critical in limiting visual morbidity. Vaccine in adults over 60 was found to be highly effective to boost waning immunity what reduces both the burden of herpes zoster (HZ) disease and the incidence of post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris D. Kalogeropoulos
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ocular Inflammation Service, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Ioannis D. Bassukas
- Department of Skin and Venereal Diseases, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | | | - Khalid F. Tabbara
- The Eye Center and the Eye Foundation for Research in Ophthalmology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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18
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Varicella-zoster virus-derived major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted peptide affinity is a determining factor in the HLA risk profile for the development of postherpetic neuralgia. J Virol 2014; 89:962-9. [PMID: 25355886 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02500-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is the most common complication of herpes zoster and is typified by a lingering pain that can last months or years after the characteristic herpes zoster rash disappears. It is well known that there are risk factors for the development of PHN, such as its association with certain HLA alleles. In this study, previous HLA genotyping results were collected and subjected to a meta-analysis with increased statistical power. This work shows that the alleles HLA-A*33 and HLA-B*44 are significantly enriched in PHN patients, while HLA-A*02 and HLA-B*40 are significantly depleted. Prediction of the varicella-zoster virus (VZV) peptide affinity for these four HLA variants by using one in-house-developed and two existing state-of-the-art major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I ligand prediction methods reveals that there is a great difference in their absolute and relative peptide binding repertoires. It was observed that HLA-A*02 displays a high affinity for an ∼7-fold-higher number of VZV peptides than HLA-B*44. Furthermore, after correction for HLA allele-specific limitations, the relative affinity of HLA-A*33 and HLA-B*44 for VZV peptides was found to be significantly lower than those of HLA-A*02 and HLA-B*40. In addition, HLA peptide affinity calculations indicate strong trends for VZV to avoid high-affinity peptides in some of its proteins, independent of the studied HLA allele. IMPORTANCE Varicella-zoster virus can cause two distinct diseases: chickenpox (varicella) and shingles (herpes zoster). Varicella is a common disease in young children, while herpes zoster is more frequent in older individuals. A common complication of herpes zoster is postherpetic neuralgia, a persistent and debilitating pain that can remain months up to years after the resolution of the rash. In this study, we show that the relative affinity of HLA variants associated with higher postherpetic neuralgia risk for varicella-zoster virus peptides is lower than that of variants with a lower risk. These results provide new insight into the development of postherpetic neuralgia and strongly support the hypothesis that one of its possible underlying causes is a suboptimal anti-VZV immune response due to weak HLA binding peptide affinity.
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19
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McAllister SC, Schleiss MR. Prospects and perspectives for development of a vaccine against herpes simplex virus infections. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 13:1349-60. [PMID: 25077372 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2014.932694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 are human pathogens that lead to significant morbidity and mortality in certain clinical settings. The development of effective antiviral medications, however, has had little discernible impact on the epidemiology of these pathogens, largely because the majority of infections are clinically silent. Decades of work have gone into various candidate HSV vaccines, but to date none has demonstrated sufficient efficacy to warrant licensure. This review examines developments in HSV immunology and vaccine development published since 2010, and assesses the prospects for improved immunization strategies that may result in an effective, licensed vaccine in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane C McAllister
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Minnesota, 3-216 McGuire Translational Research Facility, 2001 6th Street S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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20
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Chiu C, McCausland M, Sidney J, Duh FM, Rouphael N, Mehta A, Mulligan M, Carrington M, Wieland A, Sullivan NL, Weinberg A, Levin MJ, Pulendran B, Peters B, Sette A, Ahmed R. Broadly reactive human CD8 T cells that recognize an epitope conserved between VZV, HSV and EBV. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004008. [PMID: 24675761 PMCID: PMC3968128 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 02/03/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Human herpesviruses are important causes of potentially severe chronic infections for which T cells are believed to be necessary for control. In order to examine the role of virus-specific CD8 T cells against Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV), we generated a comprehensive panel of potential epitopes predicted in silico and screened for T cell responses in healthy VZV seropositive donors. We identified a dominant HLA-A*0201-restricted epitope in the VZV ribonucleotide reductase subunit 2 and used a tetramer to analyze the phenotype and function of epitope-specific CD8 T cells. Interestingly, CD8 T cells responding to this VZV epitope also recognized homologous epitopes, not only in the other α-herpesviruses, HSV-1 and HSV-2, but also the γ-herpesvirus, EBV. Responses against these epitopes did not depend on previous infection with the originating virus, thus indicating the cross-reactive nature of this T cell population. Between individuals, the cells demonstrated marked phenotypic heterogeneity. This was associated with differences in functional capacity related to increased inhibitory receptor expression (including PD-1) along with decreased expression of co-stimulatory molecules that potentially reflected their stimulation history. Vaccination with the live attenuated Zostavax vaccine did not efficiently stimulate a proliferative response in this epitope-specific population. Thus, we identified a human CD8 T cell epitope that is conserved in four clinically important herpesviruses but that was poorly boosted by the current adult VZV vaccine. We discuss the concept of a "pan-herpesvirus" vaccine that this discovery raises and the hurdles that may need to be overcome in order to achieve this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Chiu
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Centre for Respiratory Infection, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Megan McCausland
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - John Sidney
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Fuh-Mei Duh
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Laboratory for Experimental Immunology, SAIC Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nadine Rouphael
- Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases School of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Aneesh Mehta
- Division of Infectious Diseases School of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Mark Mulligan
- Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases School of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Mary Carrington
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Laboratory for Experimental Immunology, SAIC Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
- Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Andreas Wieland
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Nicole L. Sullivan
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Adriana Weinberg
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine and Pathology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Myron J. Levin
- Departments of Pediatrics, Medicine and Pathology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Bali Pulendran
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Bjoern Peters
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Alessandro Sette
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Rafi Ahmed
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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21
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Zerboni L, Sen N, Oliver SL, Arvin AM. Molecular mechanisms of varicella zoster virus pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2014; 12:197-210. [PMID: 24509782 PMCID: PMC4066823 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is the causative agent of varicella (chickenpox) and zoster (shingles). Investigating VZV pathogenesis is challenging as VZV is a human-specific virus and infection does not occur, or is highly restricted, in other species. However, the use of human tissue xenografts in mice with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) enables the analysis of VZV infection in differentiated human cells in their typical tissue microenvironment. Xenografts of human skin, dorsal root ganglia or foetal thymus that contains T cells can be infected with mutant viruses or in the presence of inhibitors of viral or cellular functions to assess the molecular mechanisms of VZV-host interactions. In this Review, we discuss how these models have improved our understanding of VZV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh Zerboni
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Nandini Sen
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Stefan L Oliver
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Ann M Arvin
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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22
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Abstract
Despite intensive efforts in recent decades to develop preventive or therapeutic vaccines against diseases caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV), or varicella-zoster virus (VZV), members of the Alpha herpes virinae subfamily of human herpes viruses,a safe and efficient vaccine has been approved for commercial development only against VZV. The VZV vaccine contains a live attenuated strain, OKA. It consists of amixture of at least 13 subpopulations of viruses, all with deletions, insertions or mutations in the genome; the most common mutations are observed in the open reading frame 62 (ORF62). Experience over more than 30 years in Japan, the USA and other countries where VZV vaccination is provided has demonstrated that the vaccine is safe and the effectiveness of two doses compared to unvaccinated children is 98-99%. When administered in a higher dose to stimulate the declining cell-mediated immunity, the same vaccine has been shown to reduce the incidence and severity of herpes zoster in immunocompetent individuals older than 60 years. Vaccination of immuno-compromised subjects with this VZV vaccine is problematic and various strategies need to be explored. Differences in the pathomechanisms of infection, latency and immune evasion of VZV and HSV, together with host genetic factors, may explain the availability of the successful VZV vaccine and the failures of the past HSV vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Sarkadi
- Division of Virology National Center for Epidemiology Albert Flórián utca 2-6 H-1097 Budapest Hungary
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Walton S, Mandaric S, Oxenius A. CD4 T cell responses in latent and chronic viral infections. Front Immunol 2013; 4:105. [PMID: 23717308 PMCID: PMC3651995 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The spectrum of tasks which is fulfilled by CD4 T cells in the setting of viral infections is large, ranging from support of CD8 T cells and humoral immunity to exertion of direct antiviral effector functions. While our knowledge about the differentiation pathways, plasticity, and memory of CD4 T cell responses upon acute infections or immunizations has significantly increased during the past years, much less is still known about CD4 T cell differentiation and their beneficial or pathological functions during persistent viral infections. In this review we summarize current knowledge about the differentiation, direct or indirect antiviral effector functions, and the regulation of virus-specific CD4 T cells in the setting of persistent latent or active chronic viral infections with a particular emphasis on herpes virus infections for the former and chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection for the latter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Senta Walton
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia Nedlands, WA, Australia
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25
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Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a highly successful human pathogen, which is never completely eliminated from the host. VZV causes two clinically distinct diseases, varicella (chickenpox) during primary infection and herpes zoster (shingles) following virus reactivation from latency. Throughout its lifecycle the virus encounters the innate and adaptive immune response, and in order to prevent eradication it has developed many mechanisms to evade and overcome these responses. This review will provide a comprehensive overview of the host immune response to VZV infection, during the multiple stages of the virus lifecycle and at key sites of VZV infection. We will also briefly describe some of the strategies employed by the virus to overcome the host immune response and the ongoing challenges in further elucidating the interplay between VZV and the host immune response in an attempt to lead to better therapies and a ‘second generation’ vaccine for VZV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Steain
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, NSW, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, NSW, Australia
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Shi W, Li X, Hou X, Peng H, Jiang Q, Shi M, Ji Y, Liu X, Liu J. Differential apoptosis gene expressions of rhabdomyosarcoma cells in response to enterovirus 71 infection. BMC Infect Dis 2012. [PMID: 23191987 PMCID: PMC3536580 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection can induce the apoptosis of infected cells. The aim of this study is to explore the effect of EV71 infection on apoptosis mechanisms in virus-infected human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells. Methods The apoptosis of RD cells was examined using annexin V-FITC/PI by flow cytometry and cytokines were detected by ELISA. Cellular RNA was extracted and transcribed to cDNA. PCR array was employed to analyze the expressions of 84 apoptotic genes from EV71-infected RD cells at 8 and 20 h postinfection, respectively. In addition, the expressions of FasL, caspase, AKT2, JNK1/2, c-Jun and NF-κB proteins were detected by western blotting. Results Flow cytometry demonstrated that the apoptosis or death of EV71-infected RD cells was increased by 37.1% with a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 5 at 20 h postinfection. The production of IL-4, IL-10 and TNF-α was enhanced by the subsequent EV71 infection. PCR array revealed significant changes in the expressions of apoptotic genes. Among 84 genes, 42 genes were down-regulated after EV71 infection at 8 h, whereas 32 genes were up-regulated at 20 h postinfection. Moreover, the ligands of TNF superfamily such as FasL, CD40L and TNF-α were significantly up-regulated and enhanced the expressions of apoptosis-related cysteine peptidases, including caspase-10, -8, -7 and -3. In addition, EV71 infection induces the phosphorylation of AKT2, JNK1/2, c-Jun and NF-κB at 20 h postinfection. Conclusion PCR array for the determination of apoptosis gene expressions is an informative assay in elucidating biological pathways. During the early stage of EV71 infection, the apoptotic process of RD cells is significantly delayed. EV71 infection can also induce the expressions of FasL, TNF-α and CD40L, which contribute to the apoptosis of RD cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weifeng Shi
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Suzhou University, Changzhou, Jiangsu, 213003, China.
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Kinchington PR, Leger AJS, Guedon JMG, Hendricks RL. Herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus, the house guests who never leave. HERPESVIRIDAE 2012; 3:5. [PMID: 22691604 PMCID: PMC3541251 DOI: 10.1186/2042-4280-3-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Human alphaherpesviruses including herpes simplex viruses (HSV-1, HSV-2) and varicella zoster virus (VZV) establish persistent latent infection in sensory neurons for the life of the host. All three viruses have the potential to reactivate causing recurrent disease. Regardless of the homology between the different virus strains, the three viruses are characterized by varying pathologies. This review will highlight the differences in infection pattern, immune response, and pathogenesis associated with HSV-1 and VZV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul R Kinchington
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Slack E, Balmer ML, Fritz JH, Hapfelmeier S. Functional flexibility of intestinal IgA - broadening the fine line. Front Immunol 2012; 3:100. [PMID: 22563329 PMCID: PMC3342566 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Intestinal bacteria outnumber our own human cells in conditions of both health and disease. It has long been recognized that secretory antibody, particularly IgA, is produced in response to these microbes and hypothesized that this must play an important role in defining the relationship between a host and its intestinal microbes. However, the exact role of IgA and the mechanisms by which IgA can act are only beginning to be understood. In this review we attempt to unravel the complex interaction between so-called “natural,” “primitive” (T-cell-independent), and “classical” IgA responses, the nature of the intestinal microbiota/intestinal pathogens and the highly flexible dynamic homeostasis of the mucosal immune system. Such an analysis reveals that low-affinity IgA is sufficient to protect the host from excess mucosal immune activation induced by harmless commensal microbes. However, affinity-maturation of “classical” IgA is essential to provide protection from more invasive commensal species such as segmented filamentous bacteria and from true pathogens such as Salmonellatyphimurium. Thus a correlation is revealed between “sophistication” of the IgA response and aggressiveness of the challenge. A second emerging theme is that more-invasive species take advantage of host inflammatory mechanisms to more successfully compete with the resident microbiota. In many cases, the function of IgA may be to limit such inflammatory responses, either directly by coagulating or inhibiting virulence of bacteria before they can interact with the host or by modulating immune signaling induced by host recognition. Therefore IgA appears to provide an added layer of robustness in the intestinal ecosystem, promoting “commensal-like” behavior of its residents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Slack
- Institute for Microbiology, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
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Steukers L, Glorieux S, Vandekerckhove AP, Favoreel HW, Nauwynck HJ. Diverse microbial interactions with the basement membrane barrier. Trends Microbiol 2012; 20:147-55. [PMID: 22300759 PMCID: PMC7127156 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2012.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2011] [Revised: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 01/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
During primary contact with susceptible hosts, microorganisms face an array of barriers that thwart their invasion process. Passage through the basement membrane (BM), a 50-100-nm-thick crucial barrier underlying epithelia and endothelia, is a prerequisite for successful host invasion. Such passage allows pathogens to reach nerve endings or blood vessels in the stroma and to facilitate spread to internal organs. During evolution, several pathogens have developed different mechanisms to cross this dense matrix of sheet-like proteins. To breach the BM, some microorganisms have developed independent mechanisms, others hijack host cells that are able to transverse the BM (e.g. leukocytes and dendritic cells) and oncogenic microorganisms might even trigger metastatic processes in epithelial cells to penetrate the underlying BM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennert Steukers
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Abstract
To identify immunologic factors that modulate the risk of herpes zoster (HZ), we compared varicella-zoster virus (VZV)-specific and nonspecific T-cell subpopulations of 47 HIV-infected children before they developed HZ with those of 141 VZV-positive HZ-negative matched controls. Compared with controls, HZ cases had lower VZV-specific CD8(+) CD107a(+) cell percentages independently of CD4(+) percentages or HIV loads, suggesting that VZV-specific cytotoxic T cells are protective against HZ. In contrast, high nonspecific regulatory and activated T cells were associated with an increased risk of HZ.
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Varicella-zoster virus inhibition of the NF-κB pathway during infection of human dendritic cells: role for open reading frame 61 as a modulator of NF-κB activity. J Virol 2011; 86:1193-202. [PMID: 22090112 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06400-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC) are antigen-presenting cells essential for initiating primary immune responses and therefore an ideal target for viral immune evasion. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) can productively infect immature human DCs and impair their function as immune effectors by inhibiting their maturation, as evidenced by the expression modulation of functionally important cell surface immune molecules CD80, CD86, CD83, and major histocompatibility complex I. The NF-κB pathway largely regulates the expression of these immune molecules, and therefore we sought to determine whether VZV infection of DCs modulates the NF-κB pathway. Nuclear localization of NF-κB p50 and p65 indicates pathway activation; however, immunofluorescence studies revealed cytoplasmic retention of these NF-κB subunits in VZV-infected DCs. Western blotting revealed phosphorylation of the inhibitor of κBα (IκBα) in VZV-infected DCs, indicating that the pathway is active at this point. We conclude that VZV infection of DC inhibits the NF-κB pathway following protein phosphorylation but before the translocation of NF-κB subunits into the nucleus. An NF-κB reporter assay identified VZV open reading frame 61 (ORF61) as an inhibitor of tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced NF-κB reporter activity. Mutational analysis of ORF61 identified the E3 ubiquitin ligase domain as a region required for NF-κB pathway inhibition. In summary, we provide evidence that VZV inhibits the NF-κB signaling pathway in human DCs and that the E3 ubiquitin ligase domain of ORF61 is required to modulate this pathway. Thus, this work identifies a mechanism by which VZV modulates host immune function.
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