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Jarratt-Barnham E, Oldroyd GED, Choi J. Efficiently recording and processing data from arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization assays using AMScorer and AMReader. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1405598. [PMID: 38828215 PMCID: PMC11140075 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1405598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi engage with land plants in a widespread, mutualistic endosymbiosis which provides their hosts with increased access to nutrients and enhanced biotic and abiotic stress resistance. The potential for reducing fertiliser use and improving crop resilience has resulted in rapidly increasing scientific interest. Microscopic quantification of the level of AM colonization is of fundamental importance to this research, however the methods for recording and processing these data are time-consuming and tedious. In order to streamline these processes, we have developed AMScorer, an easy-to-use Excel spreadsheet, which enables the user to record data rapidly during from microscopy-based assays, and instantly performs the subsequent data processing steps. In our hands, AMScorer has more than halved the time required for data collection compared to paper-based methods. Subsequently, we developed AMReader, a user-friendly R package, which enables easy visualization and statistical analyses of data from AMScorer. These tools require only limited skills in Excel and R, and can accelerate research into AM symbioses, help researchers with variable resources to conduct research, and facilitate the storage and sharing of data from AM colonization assays. They are available for download at https://github.com/EJarrattBarnham/AMReader, along with an extensive user manual.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jeongmin Choi
- *Correspondence: Edwin Jarratt-Barnham, ; Jeongmin Choi,
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2
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Liu X, Feng Z, Zhang W, Yao Q, Zhu H. Exogenous myristate promotes the colonization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in tomato. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1250684. [PMID: 38023845 PMCID: PMC10652774 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1250684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can establish symbiotic associations with the roots of most terrestrial plants, thereby improving the tolerance of the host plants to biotic and abiotic stresses. Although AMF cannot synthesize lipids de novo, they can obtain lipids from the root cells for their growth and development. A recent study reveals that AMF can directly take up myristate (C14:0 lipid) from the environment and produce a large amount of hyphae in asymbiotic status; however, the effect of environmental lipids on AM symbiosis is still unclear. In this study, we inoculated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) with AMF in an in vitro dual culture system and a sand culture system, and then applied exogenous myristate to the substrate, in order to explore the effect of exogenous lipids on the mycorrhizal colonization of AMF. We investigated the hyphae growth, development, and colonization of AMF, and examined the gene expression involved in phosphate transport, lipid biosynthesis, and transport. Results indicate that exogenous lipids significantly stimulated the growth and branching of hyphae, and significantly increased the number of hyphopodia and mycorrhizal colonization of AMF, with arbuscular abundance and intraradical spores or vesicles being the most promoted. In contrast, exogenous myristate decreased the growth range and host tropism of the germ tubes, and largely inhibited the exchange of nutrition between symbionts. As a result, exogenous myristate did not affect the plant growth. This study suggests that lipids promote mycorrhizal colonization by enhancing the growth and development of AMF hyphae and increasing their contact opportunities with plant roots. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report that shows that lipids promote the colonization of AMF. Our study highlights the importance of better understanding the roles of environmental lipids in the establishment and maintenance of AM symbiosis and, thus, in agricultural production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodi Liu
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zengwei Feng
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control, Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Litchi, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qing Yao
- College of Horticulture, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control, Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Litchi, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Honghui Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiomics and Precision Application (MARA), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiome (MARA), State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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3
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Sperschneider J, Yildirir G, Rizzi YS, Malar C M, Mayrand Nicol A, Sorwar E, Villeneuve-Laroche M, Chen ECH, Iwasaki W, Brauer EK, Bosnich W, Gutjahr C, Corradi N. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi heterokaryons have two nuclear populations with distinct roles in host-plant interactions. Nat Microbiol 2023; 8:2142-2153. [PMID: 37884816 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-023-01495-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are prominent root symbionts that can carry thousands of nuclei deriving from two parental strains in a large syncytium. These co-existing genomes can also vary in abundance with changing environmental conditions. Here we assemble the nuclear genomes of all four publicly available AMF heterokaryons using PacBio high-fidelity and Hi-C sequencing. We find that the two co-existing genomes of these strains are phylogenetically related but differ in structure, content and epigenetics. We confirm that AMF heterokaryon genomes vary in relative abundance across conditions and show this can lead to nucleus-specific differences in expression during interactions with plants. Population analyses also reveal signatures of genetic exchange indicative of past events of sexual reproduction in these strains. This work uncovers the origin and contribution of two nuclear genomes in AMF heterokaryons and opens avenues for the improvement and environmental application of these strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Sperschneider
- Black Mountain Science and Innovation Park, CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Gokalp Yildirir
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Yanina S Rizzi
- Plant Genetics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Mathu Malar C
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Essam Sorwar
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Eric C H Chen
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Wataru Iwasaki
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Elizabeth K Brauer
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Whynn Bosnich
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Caroline Gutjahr
- Plant Genetics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Nicolas Corradi
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
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4
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Montiel J, García-Soto I, James EK, Reid D, Cárdenas L, Napsucialy-Mendivil S, Ferguson S, Dubrovsky JG, Stougaard J. Aromatic amino acid biosynthesis impacts root hair development and symbiotic associations in Lotus japonicus. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 193:1508-1526. [PMID: 37427869 PMCID: PMC10517252 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Legume roots can be symbiotically colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. In Lotus japonicus, the latter occurs intracellularly by the cognate rhizobial partner Mesorhizobium loti or intercellularly with the Agrobacterium pusense strain IRBG74. Although these symbiotic programs show distinctive cellular and transcriptome signatures, some molecular components are shared. In this study, we demonstrate that 3-deoxy-d-arabino-heptulosonate 7-phosphate synthase 1 (DAHPS1), the first enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of aromatic amino acids (AAAs), plays a critical role in root hair development and for AM and rhizobial symbioses in Lotus. Two homozygous DAHPS1 mutants (dahps1-1 and dahps1-2) showed drastic alterations in root hair morphology, associated with alterations in cell wall dynamics and a progressive disruption of the actin cytoskeleton. The altered root hair structure was prevented by pharmacological and genetic complementation. dahps1-1 and dahps1-2 showed significant reductions in rhizobial infection (intracellular and intercellular) and nodule organogenesis and a delay in AM colonization. RNAseq analysis of dahps1-2 roots suggested that these phenotypes are associated with downregulation of several cell wall-related genes, and with an attenuated signaling response. Interestingly, the dahps1 mutants showed no detectable pleiotropic effects, suggesting a more selective recruitment of this gene in certain biological processes. This work provides robust evidence linking AAA metabolism to root hair development and successful symbiotic associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Montiel
- Departamento de Genómica Funcional de Eucariotas. Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca 62210, Mexico
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus DK-8000, Denmark
| | - Ivette García-Soto
- Departamento de Genómica Funcional de Eucariotas. Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca 62210, Mexico
| | - Euan K James
- Ecological Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
| | - Dugald Reid
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus DK-8000, Denmark
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia
| | - Luis Cárdenas
- Departamento de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca 62210, Mexico
| | - Selene Napsucialy-Mendivil
- Departamento de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca 62210, Mexico
| | - Shaun Ferguson
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus DK-8000, Denmark
| | - Joseph G Dubrovsky
- Departamento de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca 62210, Mexico
| | - Jens Stougaard
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus DK-8000, Denmark
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Raissig MT, Woods DP. The wild grass Brachypodium distachyon as a developmental model system. Curr Top Dev Biol 2022; 147:33-71. [PMID: 35337454 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2021.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The arrival of cheap and high-throughput sequencing paired with efficient gene editing technologies allows us to use non-traditional model systems and mechanistically approach biological phenomena beyond what was conceivable just a decade ago. Venturing into different model systems enables us to explore for example clade-specific environmental responses to changing climates or the genetics and development of clade-specific organs, tissues and cell types. We-both early career researchers working with the wild grass model Brachypodium distachyon-want to use this review to (1) highlight why we think B. distachyon is a fantastic grass developmental model system, (2) summarize the tools and resources that have enabled discoveries made in B. distachyon, and (3) discuss a handful of developmental biology vignettes made possible by using B. distachyon as a model system. Finally, we want to conclude by (4) relating our personal stories with this emerging model system and (5) share what we think is important to consider before starting work with an emerging model system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Raissig
- Centre for Organismal Studies Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Daniel P Woods
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, United States; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, United States.
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Meng Y, Varshney K, Incze N, Badics E, Kamran M, Davies SF, Oppermann LMF, Magne K, Dalmais M, Bendahmane A, Sibout R, Vogel J, Laudencia-Chingcuanco D, Bond CS, Soós V, Gutjahr C, Waters MT. KARRIKIN INSENSITIVE2 regulates leaf development, root system architecture and arbuscular-mycorrhizal symbiosis in Brachypodium distachyon. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 109:1559-1574. [PMID: 34953105 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
KARRIKIN INSENSITIVE2 (KAI2) is an α/β-hydrolase required for plant responses to karrikins, which are abiotic butenolides that can influence seed germination and seedling growth. Although represented by four angiosperm species, loss-of-function kai2 mutants are phenotypically inconsistent and incompletely characterised, resulting in uncertainties about the core functions of KAI2 in plant development. Here we characterised the developmental functions of KAI2 in the grass Brachypodium distachyon using molecular, physiological and biochemical approaches. Bdkai2 mutants exhibit increased internode elongation and reduced leaf chlorophyll levels, but only a modest increase in water loss from detached leaves. Bdkai2 shows increased numbers of lateral roots and reduced root hair growth, and fails to support normal root colonisation by arbuscular-mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. The karrikins KAR1 and KAR2 , and the strigolactone (SL) analogue rac-GR24, each elicit overlapping but distinct changes to the shoot transcriptome via BdKAI2. Finally, we show that BdKAI2 exhibits a clear ligand preference for desmethyl butenolides and weak responses to methyl-substituted SL analogues such as GR24. Our findings suggest that KAI2 has multiple roles in shoot development, root system development and transcriptional regulation in grasses. Although KAI2-dependent AM symbiosis is likely conserved within monocots, the magnitude of the effect of KAI2 on water relations may vary across angiosperms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjie Meng
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Kartikye Varshney
- Plant Genetics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, 85354, Germany
| | - Norbert Incze
- Department of Biological Resources, Agricultural Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Martonvásár, 2462, Hungary
- Doctoral School of Biology, Institute of Biology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Eszter Badics
- Department of Biological Resources, Agricultural Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Martonvásár, 2462, Hungary
- Doctoral School of Biology, Institute of Biology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Muhammad Kamran
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Sabrina F Davies
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Larissa M F Oppermann
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Kévin Magne
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, INRAE, Univ Evry, Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), Orsay, 91405, France
- Université de Paris, CNRS, INRAE, Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Marion Dalmais
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, INRAE, Univ Evry, Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), Orsay, 91405, France
- Université de Paris, CNRS, INRAE, Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Abdel Bendahmane
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, INRAE, Univ Evry, Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), Orsay, 91405, France
- Université de Paris, CNRS, INRAE, Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Richard Sibout
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR1318 INRAE-AgroParisTech, Versailles Cedex, F-78026, France
- UR1268 BIA, INRAE, Nantes, 44300, France
| | - John Vogel
- DOE Joint Genome Institute, Berkeley, California, 94720, USA
| | | | - Charles S Bond
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Vilmos Soós
- Department of Biological Resources, Agricultural Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Martonvásár, 2462, Hungary
| | - Caroline Gutjahr
- Plant Genetics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, 85354, Germany
| | - Mark T Waters
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
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7
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Das D, Paries M, Hobecker K, Gigl M, Dawid C, Lam HM, Zhang J, Chen M, Gutjahr C. PHOSPHATE STARVATION RESPONSE transcription factors enable arbuscular mycorrhiza symbiosis. Nat Commun 2022; 13:477. [PMID: 35078978 PMCID: PMC8789775 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-27976-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is a widespread symbiosis between roots of the majority of land plants and Glomeromycotina fungi. AM is important for ecosystem health and functioning as the fungi critically support plant performance by providing essential mineral nutrients, particularly the poorly accessible phosphate, in exchange for organic carbon. AM fungi colonize the inside of roots and this is promoted at low but inhibited at high plant phosphate status, while the mechanistic basis for this phosphate-dependence remained obscure. Here we demonstrate that a major transcriptional regulator of phosphate starvation responses in rice PHOSPHATE STARVATION RESPONSE 2 (PHR2) regulates AM. Root colonization of phr2 mutants is drastically reduced, and PHR2 is required for root colonization, mycorrhizal phosphate uptake, and yield increase in field soil. PHR2 promotes AM by targeting genes required for pre-contact signaling, root colonization, and AM function. Thus, this important symbiosis is directly wired to the PHR2-controlled plant phosphate starvation response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debatosh Das
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Research and Development Center for Fine Chemicals, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
- CUHK Shenzhen Research Institute, No. 10 Yuexing 2nd Road, Nanshan, Shenzhen, China
| | - Michael Paries
- Plant Genetics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Emil Ramann Str. 4, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Karen Hobecker
- Plant Genetics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Emil Ramann Str. 4, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Michael Gigl
- Chair of Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Lise-Meitner-Str. 34, D-85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Corinna Dawid
- Chair of Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Lise-Meitner-Str. 34, D-85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Hon-Ming Lam
- CUHK Shenzhen Research Institute, No. 10 Yuexing 2nd Road, Nanshan, Shenzhen, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Jianhua Zhang
- CUHK Shenzhen Research Institute, No. 10 Yuexing 2nd Road, Nanshan, Shenzhen, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong.
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Shatin, Hong Kong.
| | - Moxian Chen
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Research and Development Center for Fine Chemicals, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China.
| | - Caroline Gutjahr
- Plant Genetics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Emil Ramann Str. 4, 85354, Freising, Germany.
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8
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Schmid C, Mittermeier-Kleßinger V, Tabea Peters VC, Berger F, Kramler M, Heuberger H, Rinder R, Hofmann T, Gutjahr C, Dawid C. Quantitative Mapping of Flavor and Pharmacologically Active Compounds in European Licorice Roots ( Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) in Response to Growth Conditions and Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Symbiosis. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:13173-13189. [PMID: 34723522 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c05576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Application of a sensitive UHPLC-MS/MSMRM method enabled the simultaneous quantitation of 23 sweet-, licorice-, and bitter-tasting saponins in Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., different licorice plants and root compartments, processed licorice, as well as different Glycyrrhiza spp. The combination of quantitative data with sweet, licorice, and bitter taste thresholds led to the determination of dose-over-threshold factors to elucidate the sweet, licorice, and bitter impact of the individual saponins with and without mycorrhiza symbiosis to evaluate the licorice root quality. Aside from glycyrrhizin (1), which is the predominant sweet- and licorice-tasting saponin in all licorice samples, 20 out of 22 quantitated saponins contributed to the taste profile of licorice roots. Next to sweet-/licorice-tasting glycyrrhizin (1), 24-hydroxy-glycyrrhizin (9), 30-hydroxy-glycyrrhizin (11), and 11-deoxo-24-hydroxy-glycyrrhizin (14) as well as licorice tasting saponins 20α-galacturonic acid glycyrrhizin (17), 24-hydroxy-20α-glycyrrhizin (21), and 11-deoxo-glycyrrhizin (12) were determined as key contributors to licorice root's unique taste profile. A quantitative comparison of 23 saponins as well as 28 polyphenols between licorice roots inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi and controls showed that important taste-mediating saponins were increased in mycorrhizal roots, and these alterations depended on the growth substrate and the level of phosphate fertilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Schmid
- Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Lise-Meitner-Str. 34, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Verena Mittermeier-Kleßinger
- Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Lise-Meitner-Str. 34, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Verena Christina Tabea Peters
- Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Lise-Meitner-Str. 34, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Florian Berger
- Plant Genetics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Emil Ramann Str. 4, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Marlene Kramler
- Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Lise-Meitner-Str. 34, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Heidi Heuberger
- Institute for Crop Science and Plant Breeding, Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Vöttinger Str. 38, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Rudolf Rinder
- Institute for Crop Science and Plant Breeding, Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Vöttinger Str. 38, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Thomas Hofmann
- Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Lise-Meitner-Str. 34, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Caroline Gutjahr
- Plant Genetics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Emil Ramann Str. 4, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Corinna Dawid
- Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Lise-Meitner-Str. 34, 85354 Freising, Germany
- Bavarian Center for Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry, Technische Universität München, Gregor-Mendel-Straße 4, 85354 Freising, Germany
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