Aging, comorbidity, and breast cancer survival: an epidemiologic view

Comorbidities and the risk of cardiovascular disease mortality among racially diverse patients with breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Women who have coexisting comorbidities at the time of breast cancer diagnosis have an increased risk of breast cancer and overall mortality. However, the associations between newly diagnosed comorbidities and the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality among these patients have not been examined.

METHODS

The authors compared the associations between coexisting and newly diagnosed CVD, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension and the risk of CVD mortality among patients with breast cancer identified in the Missouri Cancer Registry. In total, 33,099 women who had incident invasive breast cancer with inpatient and outpatient hospital discharge data within 2 years after breast cancer diagnosis were included: 9.3% were Black. Subdistribution hazard ratios (sdHRs) and 95% CIs were calculated for the risk of CVD-related mortality using adjusted Cox proportional hazards regression models, accounting for a competing risk of breast cancer deaths.

RESULTS

Within the first 2 years after breast cancer, the most reported newly diagnosed comorbidity was hypertension (9%), followed by CVD (4%), and type 2 diabetes (2%). CVD mortality was increased in women who had newly diagnosed CVD (sdHR, 2.49; 95% CI, 2.09-2.99), diabetes (sdHR, 2.16; 95% CI, 1.68-2.77), or hypertension (sdHR, 2.06; 95% CI, 1.71-2.48) compared with women who did not have these conditions. Associations were similar by race. The strongest association was among women who received chemotherapy and then developed CVD (sdHR, 3.82; 95% CI, 2.69-5.43).

CONCLUSIONS

Monitoring for diabetes, hypertension, and CVD from the time of breast diagnosis may reduce CVD mortality.

Smoking and survival in female breast cancer patients

The purpose of this study was to determine if smoking affects survival in female breast cancer patients, both overall and stratified by race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. We linked data from the 1996-2007 Florida cancer data system, the Florida Agency for Health Care Administration, and the U.S. census. Inclusion criteria were females ≥18 years, diagnosed with breast cancer, and residing in Florida (n = 127,754). To analyze the association between smoking and survival, we performed sequential multivariate Cox proportional hazard regression models with progressive adjustment for main confounders. Compared to never smokers, worse survival was found in current (hazard ratio 1.33; 95 % CI 1.28-1.38) and former smokers (1.09; 1.06-1.13). Those who smoked <1, 1-2, and >2 packs/day had worse survival (HR 1.28; 1.20-1.36; HR 1.40; 1.33-1.47 and 1.70; 1.45-1.99, respectively) (p for linear trend <0.001), than never smokers. Among Whites, current and former smokers had worse survival (HR 1.38; 1.33-1.44 and HR 1.11; 1.07-1.15, respectively) than never smokers. Worse survival was also found for current and former smokers (HR 1.34; 1.29-1.40 and HR 1.10; 1.06-1.15, respectively) compared with never smokers among non-Hispanics; similarly, worse survival was found among current Hispanic smokers (HR 1.13; 1.01-1.26). The association was not significant for Blacks. Current smoking is associated with worse survival in White breast cancer patients and through all socioeconomic status categories and ethnicities compared to never smoking. Former smoking is associated with worse survival in White and non-Hispanic females. Blacks had similar survival regardless of smoking status. Nonetheless, all female breast cancer patients should be advised to quit smoking.

Adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer in older women: emerging evidence to aid in decision making

To prevent breast cancer-related recurrence and death, adjuvant therapy, including chemotherapy, is given. The decision to deliver chemotherapy requires careful weighing of the risk of toxicity versus the estimated benefit. The risk and benefit are based on information from clinical trials, statistical models, and past clinical experience . Compared to younger patients, it is perceived that older patients have cancers that are lower risk, gain less benefit from chemotherapy, and are at higher risk of toxicity. There is now strong evidence that healthy older women tolerate treatment and stand to gain the same benefits from treatment as do younger women. Numeric age alone, therefore, does not justify withholding adjuvant chemotherapy. New tools to aid in the decision are needed. Fortunately, the expected great increase in the size of the geriatric population spawned the field of geriatric oncology and the development of brief, practical versions of the Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment (CGA) for use in busy oncology clinics are in sight. It is time for us to incorporate elements of the CGA into practice, to systematically identify older patients at substantial risk of toxicity. For frail older women with breast cancer, no therapy or less toxic therapies can be considered, some of which are suggested herein. In addition, as always in oncology, physicians and patients should look for and participate in clinical trials that will define how to treat cancer, especially in older patients, in the future.

Past recreational physical activity, body size, and all-cause mortality following breast cancer diagnosis: results from the Breast Cancer Family Registry

Few studies have considered the joint association of body mass index (BMI) and physical activity, two modifiable factors, with all-cause mortality after breast cancer diagnosis. Women diagnosed with invasive breast cancer (n = 4,153) between 1991 and 2000 were enrolled in the Breast Cancer Family Registry through population-based sampling in Northern California, USA; Ontario, Canada; and Melbourne and Sydney, Australia. During a median follow-up of 7.8 years, 725 deaths occurred. Baseline questionnaires assessed moderate and vigorous recreational physical activity and BMI prior to diagnosis. Associations with all-cause mortality were assessed using Cox proportional hazards regression, adjusting for established prognostic factors. Compared with no physical activity, any recreational activity during the 3 years prior to diagnosis was associated with a 34% lower risk of death [hazard ratio (HR) = 0.66, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.51-0.85] for women with estrogen receptor (ER)-positive tumors, but not those with ER-negative tumors; this association did not appear to differ by race/ethnicity or BMI. Lifetime physical activity was not associated with all-cause mortality. BMI was positively associated with all-cause mortality for women diagnosed at age > or =50 years with ER-positive tumors (compared with normal-weight women, HR for overweight = 1.39, 95% CI: 0.90-2.15; HR for obese = 1.77, 95% CI: 1.11-2.82). BMI associations did not appear to differ by race/ethnicity. Our findings suggest that physical activity and BMI exert independent effects on overall mortality after breast cancer.

Impact of acquired comorbidities on all-cause mortality rates among older breast cancer survivors

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer survivors with higher numbers of comorbidities at the time of primary treatment suffer higher rates of all-cause mortality than comparatively healthier survivors. The effect of time-varying comorbidity status on mortality in breast cancer survivors, however, has not been well investigated.

OBJECTIVE

We examined longitudinal comorbidity in a cohort of women treated for primary breast cancer to determine whether accounting for comorbidities acquired after baseline assessment influenced the hazard ratio of all-cause mortality compared with an analysis using only baseline comorbidity.

METHODS

Cox proportional hazards adjusted for age, race/ethnicity, and exercise habits were modeled using (1) only a baseline Charlson index; (2) 4 Charlson index values collected longitudinally and entered as time-varying covariates, with missing values addressed by carrying forward the prior observation; and (3) the 4 longitudinal Charlson scores entered as time-varying covariates, with missing values multiply imputed.

RESULTS

The 3 modeling strategies yielded similar results; Model 1 HR: 1.4 per unit increase in Charlson index, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.2-1.7; Model 2 HR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.1-1.5; and Model 3 HR: 1.4, 95% CI: 1.2-1.6.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that a unit increase in the Charlson comorbidity index raises the hazard rate for all-cause mortality by approximately 1.4-fold in older women treated for primary breast cancer. The conclusion is essentially the same whether accounting only for baseline comorbidity or accounting for acquired comorbidity over a median follow-up period of 85 months.

Sensitivity to input variability of the Adjuvant! Online breast cancer prognostic model

PURPOSE

Adjuvant! Online (www.adjuvantonline.org) is a software model that predicts the benefit of adjuvant therapy for women with early-stage breast cancer. The model has been validated, is widely consulted, and has been shown to influence patient choices in the clinical setting. Adjuvant! requires the clinician to input patient age, tumor size, grade, hormone receptor status, number of positive lymph nodes, and comorbidity level. Because comorbidity is strongly and independently associated with survival, this study tested the hypothesis that Adjuvant! predictions would be sensitive to comorbidity inputs.

METHODS

Investigators used single-variable deterministic sensitivity analysis to evaluate the effect of varying each input of the model independently for three representative case examples based on National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines (NCCN). The main outcome of interest was 10-year mortality prediction.

RESULTS

The analyses show that Adjuvant!'s 10-year mortality predictions are most sensitive to patients' comorbidity levels and the extent of nodal involvement for the cases, particularly among older women. Comorbidity was the most influential input except in younger women, aged 40 years.

CONCLUSION

The Adjuvant! model is sensitive to patient comorbidity, and impact on the model outputs are significant enough that they are likely to affect physician recommendations and patients' treatment choices. For example, incorrect assessments of comorbidities could lead physicians to overtreat or undertreat a patient who is in a gray zone relative to the NCCN guidelines. These results point to the importance of accurately assessing comorbidities in patients with breast cancer when using Adjuvant! and highlight the need for a standardized process of comorbidity ascertainment.

Management of breast cancer in elderly individuals: recommendations of the International Society of Geriatric Oncology

Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer mortality in women worldwide. Elderly individuals make up a large part of the breast cancer population, and there are important specific considerations for this population. The International Society of Geriatric Oncology created a task force to assess the available evidence on breast cancer in elderly individuals, and to provide evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer in such individuals. A review of the published work was done with the results of a search on Medline for English-language articles published between 1990 and 2007 and of abstracts from key international conferences. Recommendations are given on the topics of screening, surgery, radiotherapy, (neo)adjuvant hormone treatment and chemotherapy, and metastatic disease. Since large randomised trials in elderly patients with breast cancer are scarce, there is little level I evidence for the treatment of such patients. The available evidence was reviewed and synthesised to provide consensus recommendations regarding the care of breast cancer in older adults.

Long-term survival outcomes following breast cancer surgery in Western Australia

BACKGROUND

Mortality rates from breast cancer are stabilizing or falling in many developed countries including Australia, however, survival outcomes are known to vary by social, demographic and treatment related factors. The aim of the present study was to investigate how hospital, social and demographic factors were associated with survival outcomes from surgically treated breast cancer for all women living in Western Australia.

METHODS

The WA Data Linkage System was used to access hospital morbidity, death and cancer information for all women diagnosed with invasive breast cancer in Western Australia 1982-2000. Relative survival and Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were used to identify social, demographic and hospital factors associated with an increased risk of dying from breast cancer or dying from any cause.

RESULTS

Survival outcomes improved in all women diagnosed in more recent calendar periods. However, a significantly increased risk of dying was observed for women who underwent initial surgical treatment in regional public hospitals outside of the state capital, Perth. Consistent with other reports, women aged greater than 80 years and younger than 35 years at diagnosis also had poorer survival outcomes. Residential location, socioeconomic status and race were not associated with survival after adjusting for treatment, health and hospital related factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite overall improvements in survival of women diagnosed with breast cancer in Western Australia, initial surgical treatment in public hospitals outside of Perth was associated with significantly poorer outcomes.

Adjuvant chemotherapy in elderly patients with breast cancer: where are we?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Breast cancer in elderly patients is a major health concern that will only increase in the future. For early-stage breast cancer, adjuvant chemotherapy may be indicated in this patient group following adequate local treatment and before possible hormone therapy. This review summarizes the current knowledge and provides guidelines for the use of adjuvant chemotherapy in elderly patients with breast cancer.

RECENT FINDINGS

Most data are extracted from large multicenter trials with upper age limits of 65 or 70 years. Only one multicenter randomized study investigated the potential benefit of an adjuvant anthracycline-based chemotherapy regimen added to endocrine treatment after the age of 65 years. Retrospective analyses from international group databases show the same potential absolute benefit derived from adjuvant chemotherapy in elderly compared with younger patients, however. This benefit must be weighed against life expectancy and tolerability of chemotherapy.

SUMMARY

Limited confidence of medical oncologists with cytotoxic chemotherapy administration to the elderly and a lack of both prospective studies and shared guidelines for decision making in this subpopulation are the main factors responsible for the limited use of adjuvant chemotherapy in elderly patients with breast cancer. Fortunately this contrasts with an increasing awareness among clinicians, who should learn to integrate absolute benefit, life expectancy, and tolerance of chemotherapy in their clinical decisions. Discrimination on the basis of older age alone is no longer acceptable.

Obesity, adipocytokines, and insulin resistance in breast cancer

The adipocytokines are biologically active polypeptides that are produced either exclusively or substantially by the adipocytes, and act by endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine mechanisms. Most have been associated with obesity, hyperinsulinaemia, type 2 diabetes, and chronic vascular disease; in addition, six adipocytokines--vascular endothelial growth factor, hepatocyte growth factor, leptin, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor, and interleukin-6--promote angiogenesis while one, adiponectin, is inhibitory. Obesity and insulin resistance have both been identified as risk factors for breast cancer and are associated with late-stage disease and poor prognosis. Angiogenesis is essential for breast cancer development and progression, and so it is plausible that obesity-related increases in adipocytokine production and a reduction in adiponectin may adversely affect breast cancer outcome by their angiogenesis-related activities. There is also experimental evidence that some adipocytokines can act directly on breast cancer cells to stimulate their proliferation and invasive capacity. Thus, adipocytokines may provide a biological mechanism by which obesity and insulin resistance are causally associated with breast cancer risk and poor prognosis. Both experimental and clinical studies are needed to develop this concept, and particularly in oestrogen-independent breast cancers where preventive and therapeutic options are limited.

Physical activity interventions in the elderly: cancer and comorbidity

The relationship among age, comorbidity, and physical activity have been relatively understudied among breast, colorectal, and prostate cancer populations despite their known impact on morbidity and mortality. In this article, we review evidence supporting the efficacy of physical activity interventions in improving cardiovascular risk groups, the elderly and cancer patients. Preliminary studies conducted with older patients suggest that physical activity interventions can reduce fatigue, elevate mood, improve physical functioning, reduce physical, role limitations, decrease falls, attenuate losses in bone density, promote weight loss, and modify CHD risk factors. Although relatively few randomized clinical trials have assessed the efficacy of physical activity interventions in cancer patients, the research suggests that these interventions can have both physical and mental health benefits. The implications and limitations of these findings are discussed. Further studies that use larger sample sizes and examine possible moderating variables, such as age, on the efficacy of such interventions are needed.

Breast cancer and obesity: an update

Obesity has a complicated relationship to both breast cancer risk and the clinical behavior of the established disease. In postmenopausal women, particularly the elderly, various measures of obesity have been positively associated with risk. However, before menopause increased body weight is inversely related to breast cancer risk. In both premenopausal and postmenopausal breast cancer, the mechanisms by which body weight and obesity affect risk have been related to estrogenic activity. Obesity has also been related to advanced disease at diagnosis and with a poor prognosis in both premenopausal and postmenopausal breast cancer. Breast cancer in African-American women, considering its relationship to obesity, exhibits some important differences from those described in white women, although the high prevalence of obesity in African-American women may contribute to the relatively poor prognosis compared with white American women. Despite the emphasis on estrogens to explain the effects of obesity on breast cancer, other factors may prove to be equally or more important, particularly as they relate to expression of an aggressive tumor phenotype. Among these, this review serves to stress insulin, insulin-like growth factor-I, and leptin, and their relationship to angiogenesis, and transcriptional factors.

Physical functioning of elderly cancer patients prior to diagnosis and following initial treatment

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Using an instrument to measure physical functioning that was normed to the U.S. population, data were obtained from patients with a new diagnosis of breast, colon, lung, and prostate cancer. Two questions were addressed: (a) after controlling for age, and number of comorbid conditions, do site and stage of cancer predict functional limitations prior to diagnosis; (b) using age adjusted national norms on physical functioning, how well do age, number of comorbid conditions, stage, treatment and cluster of symptoms (pain, fatigue, and insomnia) explain changes in physical function between 3 months prior to and 8 weeks following diagnosis?

METHODS

Patients 65 years of age and older were accrued from 24 community oncology settings. Consenting patients were interviewed within 8 weeks of initial treatment. The SF-36 was used to measure physical functioning. Comorbidity and symptom experience were assessed through patient report and site and stage of cancer from record audits.

RESULTS

Prior to diagnosis of cancer, patients were comparable in physical functioning to the U.S. population aged 55-64, a full decade younger than the sample of cancer patients. Site and stage of disease did not account for variations in physical functioning prior to diagnosis. Compared against national norms, patients with more extensive treatments (surgery plus adjuvant therapy) reported greater loss in functioning. Pain, fatigue, and insomnia had a consistent and significant effect on losses in functioning unrelated to patients' treatments or their comorbid conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Site and stage of cancer prior to diagnosis do not affect functioning. Older cancer patients report higher functioning than their counterparts in the U.S. population. Changes in functioning following diagnosis varied by cancer site. Treatments were related to loss in functioning, but comorbidity was not. Pain, fatigue, and insomnia were significant and independent predictors of change in patient functioning. This underscores the importance of interventions to manage symptoms early in the course of treatment for individuals.

It won't happen to me: lower perception of heart disease risk among women with family histories of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

The threat that breast cancer poses to American women, particularly to women with family histories of the disease, has received widespread attention in both medical and popular literatures. While this emphasis may have laudable consequences on breast cancer screening, it may also have a negative consequence, obscuring women's recognition of their risks for other health threats, such as heart disease. This study examined the possibility that women with family histories of breast cancer may be particularly susceptible to overestimating their risks of breast cancer while minimizing their risks of cardiovascular disease.

METHODS

Healthy women with (n = 73) and without n = 104) family histories of breast cancer (64% African American, 26% Caucasian, 10% other ethnicities, mean age 41.7 years) were recruited from medical centers in New York City, and completed questionnaires concerning their family histories and perceptions of risk.

RESULTS

Consistent with the study hypothesis, women with family histories of breast cancer had significantly higher perceived lifetime risk of breast cancer (P<0.0002) but lower perceived lifetime risk of heart disease (P<0.002) than women without family histories. Additionally, women with family histories of breast cancer had lower perceived colon cancer risk (P<0.02), suggesting that women with family histories of breast cancer may be underestimating their risks for a variety of diseases.

CONCLUSION

The emphasis on breast cancer risk, especially for women with family histories of the disease, may need to be balanced by educational efforts concerning women's risk of other diseases, particularly cardiovascular disease.

[Cancer and the elderly. Management. Decision aspects]

INTRODUCTION

Age is the major risk factor for the majority of patients with cancer. More than 50% of cancers occurs after the age of 60. Cancer in the elderly is therefore a public health issue at stake. However, in daily clinical practice the elderly presenting cancer are not listened to with great interest and treatment is often not proper or suboptimal.

CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND KEY POINTS

Diagnosis in the elderly is established at a more advanced stage of cancer than in younger people; diagnostic workup is reduced and suboptimal treatments are implemented. Therefore, barriers exist that prevent the elderly from accessing the healthcare system as easily as their younger counterpart. Misconceptions about cancer also lead them to delay their first visit. As well, although treatment with curative intent and without major side-effect is feasible, physicians have misconceptions regarding therapeutic possibilities. Due to the heterogeneity of the so-called "ageing population", difficulties are related to patients' selection.

FUTURE PROSPECTS AND PROJECTS

Decision in oncology for the elderly must walk a fine line in attempting to deliver the best treatment under the best conditions. Age per se must not be the only criterion for medical decision. Providing accurate information adapted to the elderly, with large circulation among healthcare professionals, should lead to the same quality of care as that in young people. Comprehensive multimodal geriatric assessments should help to further differentiate patients who may benefit from curative treatment from those for whom only palliative treatment is necessary.

Breast cancer and aging. Clinical interactions

The incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer increase with age. As the geriatric population grows, the number of breast cancer cases will reach epidemic proportions. The number of coexisting medical conditions also increases with advancing age. The presence and severity of comorbid conditions influences an individual's ability to tolerate procedures and treatments and must be considered in making disease-management decisions. Screening mammography can potentially save lives in older women. Women whose life expectancy exceeds 5 years should continue annual screening mammography. Choices for local definitive therapy, systemic adjuvant therapy, and treatment of metastatic disease should be based on patient preference and ability to tolerate the planned procedure. In general, otherwise healthy older women should be offered the same treatment options given to younger, postmenopausal women. Alternative, less aggressive, or nonstandard approaches are warranted in women whose life expectancy is limited or who are unable or unwilling to undergo standard management procedures.

The Impact of Comorbidity and Age on Survival with Laryngeal Cancer

Previous studies have evaluated the effects of comorbidity on survival in patients with cancer. We applied the Charlson comorbidity index (CCI) to a cohort of patients with laryngeal cancer to validate its use and to assess the prognostic impact of age. Our study population consisted of 152 patients with laryngeal cancer who were seen over a 10-year period. Patients were assigned CCI scores and were categorized into low- and high-grade comorbidity groups for comparison. Age adjustments were performed by adding 1 point to the Charlson score for each decade over the median age.

Low- vs. high-grade comorbidity was a valid predictor of survival independent of TNM (tumor, nodes, and metastases) stage. Low-grade comorbidity was present in 126 patients; their median survival was 41 months. High-grade comorbidity was present in 26 patients; their median survival was 8 months (p = 0.0002). The addition of the age factor to the CCI did not improve our prognostic ability. There was no difference in CCI groups with respect to tobacco and alcohol use, gender, treatment modality, or mean time to recurrence. The incidence and severity of complications were also similar in the two groups.

We conclude that the CCI is a strong predictor of survival inpatients with laryngeal cancer. The confounding effects of comorbidity should be considered in the TNM staging of laryngeal cancer to improve our prognostic ability. Further investigations are necessary to assess the validity of this index inpatients with other head and neck cancers.

Symptoms as an index of biologic behavior in head and neck cancer

The TNM staging system for head and neck cancer is based on the morphologic description of the tumor and disregards the clinical condition of the patient. Cancer symptoms were evaluated as a biologic index of disease to improve survival estimates. The medical records of 1010 patients receiving initial cancer treatment between 1980 and 1991 were retrospectively reviewed. The mean survival duration was 62 months for the entire population. By use of SAS statistical software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC), 48 symptom variables were screened by univariate analysis, and 23 of these variables were selected for entry into a Cox proportional hazards model on the basis of survival duration. Dysphagia, otalgia, neck lump, and weight loss were identified as independent predictors of survival duration (P < 0.01). A composite symptom-severity staging system was created on the basis of the 4 symptoms. Mean survival duration (95% CI) by symptom-severity stage was as follows: none, 74 months (70 to 79 months); mild, 56 months (51 to 61 months); moderate, 40 months (33 to 47 months); and severe, 31 months (22 to 41 months) (chi 2 = 30.8, P = 0.0001). Survival duration by TNM stage was as follows: I, 89 months (82 to 95 months); II, 71 months (65 to 78 months); III, 53 months (47 to 59 months); and IV, 42 months (37 to 47 months) (chi 2 = 56.2, P = 0.0001). When symptom-severity stage was entered in a proportional-hazards model along with TNM stage, comorbidity, age, and alcohol use, all 5 variables were independently predictive of survival duration (risk ratio: symptom severity 1.28, TNM 1.33, comorbidity 1.80, age 1.47, alcohol use 1.09). Appropriately defined symptom variables contain important prognostic information, which is independent of the TNM system. Therefore symptoms provide an index of biologic behavior in head and neck cancer.

Clinical-severity staging system for oral cavity cancer: five-year survival rates

The objective of this research is to improve the classification and survival estimates for patients with oral cavity cancer by combining cancer symptom severity and comorbidity with the current TNM staging system. The study design is a retrospective medical record review that uses explicit coding criteria. The medical records of 277 patients receiving initial treatment at the Washington University Medical Center between 1980 and 1989 were reviewed. Multivariate analysis identified patient factors that significantly affected 5-year survival. These patient factors, symptom severity and comorbidity, were combined with TNM to create a composite clinical-severity staging system. The overall 5-year survival rate was 46% (128/277). Survival rates by TNM stage were as follows: stage I, 72% (36/50); II, 54% (45/84); III, 37% (24/65); and IV, 29% (23/78) (chi2 = 25.27, P = 0.001). When patients were grouped according to the clinical-severity staging system, survival rates were as follows: stage I, 77% (33/43); II, 56% (45/80); III, 42% (43/103); and IV, 14% (7/51) (chi2 = 40.62, P = 0.001). Survival estimates can be improved by adding carefully studied and suitably defined patient variables to the TNM system. The current TNM staging system for oral cavity cancer is based solely on the morphologic description of the tumor and disregards the clinical condition of the patient. Patient factors, such as cancer symptom severity and comorbidity, have a significant impact on survival. Continued exclusion of patient factors leads to imprecision in prognostic estimates and hinders interpretation of clinical studies.

The correlation of comorbidity with function of the shoulder and health status of patients who have glenohumeral degenerative joint disease

We studied the effect of comorbidities on function of the shoulder and health status in a group of eighty-five consecutive patients who had glenohumeral degenerative joint disease of sufficient severity to meet one surgeon's criteria for the performance of shoulder arthroplasty. A questionnaire was used to identify the comorbidities, such as other diseases, social factors, or a work-related injury, for each patient. The number of functions on the Simple Shoulder Test that the patient could perform had a significant negative correlation with the number of comorbidities (r = -0.32, intercept = 4.6 per cent, slope = -0.6, and p = 0.0031). Each parameter on the Short Form-36 (except for physical role function) had a significant negative correlation with the number of comorbidities (p < 0.05). This negative relationship was strongest for general health perception (r = -0.42) and vitality (r = -0.35). We concluded that the number of comorbidities has a quantitative effect on function of the shoulder. In the evaluation of the functional status of patients and the effectiveness of treatment, the effects of comorbidity must be controlled. The results of the present study demonstrate that the scores on the Short Form-36 are quantitatively related to the number of comorbidities. The six parameters that are unrelated to function of the shoulder (physical function, social function, emotional role function, mental health, vitality, and general health perception) may provide a practical way to integrate the effects of all potential comorbidities on individual patients. Future clinical research will be strengthened by efforts to measure the impact of comorbidities and by strategies to control for their effects.

Age, substance abuse, and survival of patients with cervical carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The poor survival of young patients with cervical cancer in a low income, disadvantaged community stimulated an investigation of pathologic and behavioral risk factors.

METHODS

The records of 1173 patients with cervical cancer diagnosed in 1967-1988 were evaluated with respect to age, stage, histology, and presenting symptoms. Histopathologic risk factors were evaluated in 196 patients with Stage IB disease treated by initial hysterectomy. Substance abuse behaviors were evaluated for 332 symptomatic patients with Stages IB-III disease diagnosed from 1976 to 1988.

RESULTS

There were no significant age-related differences in survival for patients without squamous cell carcinoma or those with Stage IA and asymptomatic Stage IB squamous cell carcinoma. Women age 70 years and older had a poorer survival rate than did younger women with Stages IB-III disease. Symptomatic patients with squamous cell carcinoma younger than age 50 years had a poorer survival than did patients age 50-69 years with Stages IB/IIA, IIB, and III disease. For patients with symptomatic Stage IB tumors, poor prognostic histopathologic factors were distributed equally among women younger than age 50 and those aged 50-69 years. Substance abuse was significantly more prevalent among younger patients, and patients who smoked or abused alcohol or drugs had significantly poorer survival than did nonsubstance abusers. However, in a multivariate analysis of age, stage, and substance abuse, young age remained a significantly poor prognostic factor.

CONCLUSIONS

Substance abuse may contribute to poor outcome of young patients with symptomatic squamous cell carcinoma but does not explain adequately their poor survival.