The Crystal Structure of Troponin C in Complex with N-Terminal Fragment of Troponin I. In: Sugi H, Pollack GH, editors. Mechanisms of Work Production and Work Absorption in Muscle. Boston: Springer US; 1999. pp. 157-67. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-6039-1_19]

Diversification and Independent Evolution of Troponin C Genes in Insects

Troponin C (TpnC), the calcium-binding subunit of the troponin regulatory complex in the muscle thin filament, is encoded by multiple genes in insects. To understand how TpnC genes have evolved, we characterized the gene number and structure in a number of insect species. The TpnC gene complement is five genes in Drosophilidae as previously reported for D. melanogaster. Gene structures are almost identical in D. pseudoobscura, D. suboboscura, and D. virilis. Developmental patterns of expression are also conserved in Drosophila subobscura and D. virilis. Similar, but not completely equivalent, TpnC gene repertoires have been identified in the Anopheles gambiae and Apis mellifera genomes. Insect TpnC sequences can be divided into three groups, allowing a systematic classification of newly identified genes. The pattern of expression of the Apis mellifera genes essentially agrees with the pattern in Drosophilidae, providing further functional support to the classification. A model for the evolution of the TpnC genes is proposed including the most likely pathway of insect TpnC diversification. Our results suggest that the rapid increase in number and sequence specialization of the adult Type III isoforms can be correlated with the evolution of the holometabolous mode of development and the acquisition of asynchronous indirect flight muscle function in insects. This evolutionarily specialization has probably been achieved independently in different insect orders.

Molecular actions of drugs that sensitize cardiac myofilaments to Ca2+

Ca(2+)-sensitizers are inotropic agents that modify the response of myofilaments to Ca2+, and are potentially valuable drugs in the treatment of heart failure. These agents have diverse chemical structures, and in some cases also have effects as inhibitors of phosphodiesterase activity. Advantages of their actions include vasodilation combined with inotropic effects. Reduction in the amounts of Ca2+ required to activate the myofilaments also lowers the oxygen consumption required for Ca2+ transport, lowers the threat of arrhythmias, and may blunt Ca(2+)-dependent transcriptional and translational mechanisms leading to hypertrophy and failure. Although diastolic abnormalities and impaired relaxation were thought to be potential undesirable effects of Ca(2+)-sensitizers, studies of hearts beating in situ indicate that this may not be a major problem. We focus here on Ca(2+)-sensitizers that act on cardiac troponin C, the Ca2+ receptor that triggers activation of the actin-myosin interaction. Structural studies have identified a unique mode of Ca2+ signaling in cardiac troponin C that should aid in targeting drugs to the heart. Moreover, identification of docking sites of Ca(2+)-sensitizers on troponin C suggest new directions for rational drug design.

Structural and functional studies on Troponin I and Troponin C interactions

Troponin I (TnI) peptides (TnI inhibitory peptide residues 104-115, Ip; TnI regulatory peptide resides 1-30, TnI1-30), recombinant Troponin C (TnC) and Troponin I mutants were used to study the structural and functional relationship between TnI and TnC. Our results reveal that an intact central D/E helix in TnC is required to maintain the ability of TnC to release the TnI inhibition of the acto-S1-TM ATPase activity. Ca(2+)-titration of the TnC-TnI1-30 complex was monitored by circular dichroism. The results show that binding of TnI1-30 to TnC caused a three-folded increase in Ca(2+) affinity in the high affinity sites (III and IV) of TnC. Gel electrophoresis and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) studies demonstrate that the sequences of the N- and C-terminal regions of TnI interact in an anti-parallel fashion with the corresponding N- and C-domain of TnC. Our results also indicate that the N- and C-terminal domains of TnI which flank the TnI inhibitory region (residues 104 to 115) play a vital role in modulating the Ca(2+)- sensitive release of the TnI inhibitory region by TnC within the muscle filament. A modified schematic diagram of the TnC/TnI interaction is proposed.

Calcium-induced flexibility changes in the troponin C-troponin I complex

The contraction of vertebrate striated muscle is modulated by Ca(2+) binding to the regulatory protein troponin C (TnC). Ca(2+) binding causes conformational changes in TnC which alter its interaction with the inhibitory protein troponin I (TnI), initiating the regulatory process. We have used the frequency domain method of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) to measure distances and distance distributions between specific sites in the TnC-TnI complex in the presence and absence of Ca(2+) or Mg(2+). Using sequences based on rabbit skeletal muscle proteins, we prepared functional, binary complexes of wild-type TnC and a TnI mutant which contains no Cys residues and a single Trp residue at position 106 within the TnI inhibitory region. We used TnI Trp-106 as the FRET donor, and we introduced energy acceptor groups into TnC by labeling at Met-25 with dansyl aziridine or at Cys-98 with N-(iodoacetyl)-N'-(1-sulfo-5-naphthyl)ethylenediamine. Our distance distribution measurements indicate that the TnC-TnI complex is relatively rigid in the absence of Ca(2+), but becomes much more flexible when Ca(2+) binds to regulatory sites in TnC. This increased flexibility may be propagated to the whole thin filament, helping to release the inhibition of actomyosin ATPase activity and allowing the muscle to contract. This is the first report of distance distributions between TnC and TnI in their binary complex.