Simultaneous Manipulation and Super-Resolution Fluorescence Imaging of Individual Kinetochores Coupled to Microtubule Tips

Autophosphorylation is sufficient to release Mps1 kinase from native kinetochores

Accurate mitosis depends on a surveillance system called the spindle assembly checkpoint. This checkpoint acts at kinetochores, which attach chromosomes to the dynamic tips of spindle microtubules. When a kinetochore is unattached or improperly attached, the protein kinase Mps1 phosphorylates kinetochore components, catalyzing the generation of a diffusible "wait" signal that delays anaphase and gives the cell time to correct the error. When a kinetochore becomes properly attached, its checkpoint signal is silenced to allow progression into anaphase. Recently, microtubules were found to compete directly against recombinant human Mps1 fragments for binding to the major microtubule-binding kinetochore element Ndc80c, suggesting a direct competition model for silencing the checkpoint signal at properly attached kinetochores. Here, by developing single-particle fluorescence-based assays, we tested whether such direct competition occurs in the context of native kinetochores isolated from yeast. Mps1 levels were not reduced on kinetochore particles bound laterally to the sides of microtubules or on particles tracking processively with disassembling tips. Instead, we found that Mps1 kinase activity was sufficient to promote its release from the isolated kinetochores. Mps1 autophosphorylation, rather than phosphorylation of other kinetochore components, was responsible for this dissociation. Our findings suggest that checkpoint silencing in yeast does not arise from a direct competition between Mps1 and microtubules, and that phosphoregulation of Mps1 may be a critical aspect of the silencing mechanism.

Tight bending of the Ndc80 complex provides intrinsic regulation of its binding to microtubules

Regulation of the outer kinetochore complex Ndc80 is essential to ensure correct kinetochore-microtubule attachments during mitosis. Here, we present a novel mechanism of regulation that is intrinsic to its structure; tight bending of the Ndc80 complex inhibits its microtubule binding. Using single molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), we show that the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ndc80 complex can fluctuate between straight and bent forms, and that binding of the complex to microtubules selects for straightened forms. The loop region of the complex enables its bent conformation, as deletion of the loop promotes straightening. In addition, the kinetochore complex MIND enhances microtubule binding by opposing the tightly bent, auto-inhibited conformation of the Ndc80 complex. We suggest that prior to its assembly at the kinetochore, the Ndc80 complex interchanges between bent (auto-inhibited) and open conformations. Once assembled, its association with MIND stabilizes the Ndc80 complex in a straightened form for higher affinity microtubule binding.

The kinetoplastid kinetochore protein KKT4 is an unconventional microtubule tip-coupling protein

The evolutionarily divergent class of kinetoplastid organisms has a set of unconventional kinetochore proteins that drive chromosome segregation, but it is unclear which components interact with spindle microtubules. Llauró et al. now identify KKT4 as the first microtubule-binding kinetochore protein in Trypanosoma brucei, a major human pathogenic parasite.

Kinetochores are multiprotein machines that drive chromosome segregation by maintaining persistent, load-bearing linkages between chromosomes and dynamic microtubule tips. Kinetochores in commonly studied eukaryotes bind microtubules through widely conserved components like the Ndc80 complex. However, in evolutionarily divergent kinetoplastid species such as Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness, the kinetochores assemble from a unique set of proteins lacking homology to any known microtubule-binding domains. Here, we show that the T. brucei kinetochore protein KKT4 binds directly to microtubules and maintains load-bearing attachments to both growing and shortening microtubule tips. The protein localizes both to kinetochores and to spindle microtubules in vivo, and its depletion causes defects in chromosome segregation. We define a microtubule-binding domain within KKT4 and identify several charged residues important for its microtubule-binding activity. Thus, despite its lack of significant similarity to other known microtubule-binding proteins, KKT4 has key functions required for driving chromosome segregation. We propose that it represents a primary element of the kinetochore–microtubule interface in kinetoplastids.

Optical approaches for visualization of arrestin binding to muscarinic receptor

G protein-coupled seven-transmembrane receptors (GPCRs) mediate responses to hormones, metabolites, lipids, and neurotransmitters at the cell membrane, and so they are prominent drug targets. Although many structural, biochemical, cell biological, and biophysical studies made remarkable progress to understand mechanisms of GPCR signaling, there still are many unanswered questions about arrestin-dependent GPCR signaling. In this chapter, we focus on optical assays to see muscarinic receptor-arrestin interactions with ensemble FRET and single-molecule TIRF imaging in live cells and finally to integrate the information to simulate hypothesized steps in Virtual Cell.