1
|
Lee CC, Wang TC, Wang HY, Hsu B, Shih RJ, Lo NW, Wang CY. Association Between HSPA5 Promoter Polymorphisms and a Reduced Risk of Normal Tension Glaucoma. Ophthalmic Res 2022; 65:474-480. [PMID: 35378534 DOI: 10.1159/000524173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In Normal Tension Glaucoma (NTG), factors other than elevated Intraocular Pressure (IOP) are likely to play a role in the pathogenesis of optic neuropathy. The potential similarities between Alzheimer's disease and NTG in cellular apoptosis leading to neuro-degeneration have been shown in recent studies. HSPA5 (Heat Shock Protein family A member 5) promoter polymorphisms have been reported to be associated with a risk of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). The purpose of our study was to investigate the role of HSPA5 promoter polymorphisms in NTG patients. METHODS A total of 222 patients with NTG, along with 236 normal controls were enrolled in this study. Genomic DNA was amplified through a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and identified for the polymorphic HSPA5 (-415 and -370) by Xmn1 and BstY1 restriction digestion, respectively. PCR fragments with potential polymorphic HSPA5 (-180) were subjected to sequence-analyses by a Hex-labeled primer. Genotypes for both the NTG patients and control groups were compared for statistically significant differences. RESULTS Polymorphisms (-415) G/A and (-180) del/G were completely linked in our population. The genotype and allele frequency distribution at the -415 G/A and -180 del/G sites showed a significant difference between the NTG cases and controls. The genotype frequency of HSPA5 (-415) AA / (-180) GG and the allele frequency of HSPA5 (-415) A / (-180) G were significantly lower (p=0.04 and p= 0.01, respectively) in the NTG patients when compared with those in the control group. There was no significant difference in genotype or allele frequency distribution of the HSPA5 (-370) C/T between the NTG and control groups. There was a reduced risk of NTG associated with the carriers for the HSPA5 (-415) A / (-180 ) G allele compared with that in the control population (p=0.01). CONCLUSION HSPA5 (-415) A and (-180) G allele polymorphisms may be protective factors in the development of NTG.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chia Chi Lee
- Department of Ophthalmology, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan,
| | - Tzu Chen Wang
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Tung-Hai University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hsin Yu Wang
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Tung-Hai University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Bin Hsu
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Tung-Hai University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Rong Jhen Shih
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Tung-Hai University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Neng Wen Lo
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Tung-Hai University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chun Yuan Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Maddineni P, Kasetti RB, Kodati B, Yacoub S, Zode GS. Sodium 4-Phenylbutyrate Reduces Ocular Hypertension by Degrading Extracellular Matrix Deposition via Activation of MMP9. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:10095. [PMID: 34576258 PMCID: PMC8465971 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221810095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocular hypertension (OHT) is a serious adverse effect of the widely prescribed glucocorticoid (GC) therapy and, if left undiagnosed, it can lead to glaucoma and complete blindness. Previously, we have shown that the small chemical chaperone, sodium-4-phenylbutyrate (PBA), rescues GC-induced OHT by reducing ocular endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. However, the exact mechanism of how PBA rescues GC-induced OHT is not completely understood. The trabecular meshwork (TM) is a filter-like specialized contractile tissue consisting of TM cells embedded within extracellular matrix (ECM) that controls intraocular pressure (IOP) by constantly regulating aqueous humor (AH) outflow. Induction of abnormal ECM deposition in TM is a hallmark of GC-induced OHT. Here, we investigated whether PBA reduces GC-induced OHT by degrading abnormal ECM deposition in TM using mouse model of GC-induced OHT, ex vivo cultured human TM tissues and primary human TM cells. We show that topical ocular eye drops of PBA (1%) significantly lowers elevated IOP in mouse model of GC-induced OHT. Importantly, PBA prevents synthesis and deposition of GC-induced ECM in TM. We report for the first time that PBA can degrade existing abnormal ECM in normal human TM cells/tissues by inducing matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)9 expression and activity. Furthermore, inhibition of MMPs activity by chemical-inhibitor (minocycline) abrogated PBA's effect on ECM reduction and its associated ER stress. Our study indicates a non-chaperone activity of PBA via activation of MMP9 that degrades abnormal ECM accumulation in TM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Gulab S. Zode
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, North Texas Eye Research Institute, University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA; (P.M.); (R.B.K.); (B.K.); (S.Y.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rozpędek-Kamińska W, Galita G, Siwecka N, Carroll SL, Diehl JA, Kucharska E, Pytel D, Majsterek I. The Potential Role of Small-Molecule PERK Inhibitor LDN-0060609 in Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma Treatment. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094494. [PMID: 33925820 PMCID: PMC8123501 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) constitutes the most common type of glaucoma. Emerging evidence suggests that Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) stress and the protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK)-mediated Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) signaling pathway play a key role in POAG pathogenesis. Thus, the main aim of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the PERK inhibitor LDN-0060609 in cellular model of glaucoma using primary human trabecular meshwork (HTM) cells. To evaluate the level of the ER stress marker proteins, Western blotting and TaqMan gene expression assay were used. The cytotoxicity was measured by XTT, LDH assays and Giemsa staining, whereas genotoxicity via comet assay. Changes in cell morphology were assessed by phase-contrast microscopy. Analysis of apoptosis was performed by caspase-3 assay and flow cytometry (FC), whereas cell cycle progression by FC. The results obtained have demonstrated that LDN-0060609 triggered a significant decrease of ER stress marker proteins within HTM cells with induced ER stress conditions. Moreover, LDN-0060609 effectively increased viability, reduced DNA damage, increased proliferation, restored normal morphology, reduced apoptosis and restored normal cell cycle distribution of HTM cells with induced ER stress conditions. Thereby, PERK inhibitors, such as LDN-0060609, may provide an innovative, ground-breaking treatment strategy against POAG.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wioletta Rozpędek-Kamińska
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland; (W.R.-K.); (G.G.); (N.S.)
| | - Grzegorz Galita
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland; (W.R.-K.); (G.G.); (N.S.)
| | - Natalia Siwecka
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland; (W.R.-K.); (G.G.); (N.S.)
| | - Steven L. Carroll
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA;
| | - John Alan Diehl
- Hollings Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA;
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Ewa Kucharska
- Department of Gerontology, Geriatrics and Social Work, Jesuit University Ignatianum, 31-501 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Dariusz Pytel
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland; (W.R.-K.); (G.G.); (N.S.)
- Hollings Cancer Center, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA;
- Correspondence: (D.P.); (I.M.); Tel.: +48-42-272-53-00 (D.P. & I.M.)
| | - Ireneusz Majsterek
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland; (W.R.-K.); (G.G.); (N.S.)
- Correspondence: (D.P.); (I.M.); Tel.: +48-42-272-53-00 (D.P. & I.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Maddineni P, Kasetti RB, Patel PD, Millar JC, Kiehlbauch C, Clark AF, Zode GS. CNS axonal degeneration and transport deficits at the optic nerve head precede structural and functional loss of retinal ganglion cells in a mouse model of glaucoma. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:48. [PMID: 32854767 PMCID: PMC7457267 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00400-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glaucoma is a leading neurodegenerative disease affecting over 70 million individuals worldwide. Early pathological events of axonal degeneration and retinopathy in response to elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) are limited and not well-defined due to the lack of appropriate animal models that faithfully replicate all the phenotypes of primary open angle glaucoma (POAG), the most common form of glaucoma. Glucocorticoid (GC)-induced ocular hypertension (OHT) and its associated iatrogenic open-angle glaucoma share many features with POAG. Here, we characterized a novel mouse model of GC-induced OHT for glaucomatous neurodegeneration and further explored early pathological events of axonal degeneration in response to elevated IOP. METHODS C57BL/6 J mice were periocularly injected with either vehicle or the potent GC, dexamethasone 21-acetate (Dex) once a week for 10 weeks. Glaucoma phenotypes including IOP, outflow facility, structural and functional loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), optic nerve (ON) degeneration, gliosis, and anterograde axonal transport deficits were examined at various stages of OHT. RESULTS Prolonged treatment with Dex leads to glaucoma in mice similar to POAG patients including IOP elevation due to reduced outflow facility and dysfunction of trabecular meshwork, progressive ON degeneration and structural and functional loss of RGCs. Lowering of IOP rescued Dex-induced ON degeneration and RGC loss, suggesting that glaucomatous neurodegeneration is IOP dependent. Also, Dex-induced neurodegeneration was associated with activation of astrocytes, axonal transport deficits, ON demyelination, mitochondrial accumulation and immune cell infiltration in the optic nerve head (ONH) region. Our studies further show that ON degeneration precedes structural and functional loss of RGCs in Dex-treated mice. Axonal damage and transport deficits initiate at the ONH and progress toward the distal end of ON and target regions in the brain (i.e. superior colliculus). Most of anterograde transport was preserved during initial stages of axonal degeneration (30% loss) and complete transport deficits were only observed at the ONH during later stages of severe axonal degeneration (50% loss). CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that ON degeneration and transport deficits at the ONH precede RGC structural and functional loss and provide a new potential therapeutic window for rescuing neuronal loss and restoring health of damaged axons in glaucoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Prabhavathi Maddineni
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience and the North Texas Eye Research Institute, IREB-535, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107 USA
| | - Ramesh B. Kasetti
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience and the North Texas Eye Research Institute, IREB-535, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107 USA
| | - Pinkal D. Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience and the North Texas Eye Research Institute, IREB-535, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107 USA
| | - J. Cameron Millar
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience and the North Texas Eye Research Institute, IREB-535, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107 USA
| | - Charles Kiehlbauch
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience and the North Texas Eye Research Institute, IREB-535, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107 USA
| | - Abbot F. Clark
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience and the North Texas Eye Research Institute, IREB-535, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107 USA
| | - Gulab S. Zode
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience and the North Texas Eye Research Institute, IREB-535, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107 USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gindina S, Hu Y, Barron AO, Qureshi Z, Danias J. Tissue plasminogen activator attenuates outflow facility reduction in mouse model of juvenile open angle glaucoma. Exp Eye Res 2020; 199:108179. [PMID: 32739292 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.108179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) has been shown to prevent steroid-induced reduction in aqueous humor outflow facility via an upregulation in matrix metalloproteinase (Mmp) expression. The purpose of this study was to determine whether tPA can rescue outflow facility reduction in the Tg-MYOCY437H mouse model, which replicates human juvenile open angle glaucoma. Outflow facility was measured in Tg-MYOCY437H mice following: periocular steroid exposure and intraocular protein treatment with enzymatically active or enzymatically inactive tPA. Effects of tPA on outflow facility were compared to those of animals treated with topical sodium phenylbutarate (PBA), a modulator of endoplasmic reticulum stress. Gene expression of fibrinolytic pathway components (Plat, Plau, and Pai-1) and matrix metalloproteinases (Mmp-2, -9, and -13) was determined in angle ring tissues containing the trabecular meshwork. Tg-MYOCY437H mice did not display further outflow facility reduction following steroid exposure. Enzymatically active and enzymatically inactive tPA were equally effective in attenuating outflow facility reduction in Tg-MYOCY437H mice and caused enhanced expression of matrix metalloproteinases (Mmp-9 and Mmp-13). tPA was equally effective to topical PBA treatment in ameliorating outflow facility reduction in Tg-MYOCY437H mice. Both treatments were associated with an upregulation in Mmp-9 expression while tPA also upregulated Mmp-13 expression. tPA increases the expression of matrix metalloproteinases and may cause extracellular matrix remodeling at the trabecular meshwork, which results in reversal of outflow facility reduction in Tg-MYOCY437H mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sofya Gindina
- Department of Cell Biology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA.
| | - Yan Hu
- Department of Cell Biology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Arturo O Barron
- Department of Cell Biology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Zain Qureshi
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - John Danias
- Department of Cell Biology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
The Genetic and Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mediated Molecular Mechanisms of Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21114171. [PMID: 32545285 PMCID: PMC7312987 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21114171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glaucoma is a heterogenous, chronic, progressive group of eye diseases, which results in irreversible loss of vision. There are several types of glaucoma, whereas the primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) constitutes the most common type of glaucoma, accounting for three-quarters of all glaucoma cases. The pathological mechanisms leading to POAG pathogenesis are multifactorial and still poorly understood, but it is commonly known that significantly elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) plays a crucial role in POAG pathogenesis. Besides, genetic predisposition and aggregation of abrogated proteins within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen and subsequent activation of the protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK)-dependent unfolded protein response (UPR) signaling pathway may also constitute important factors for POAG pathogenesis at the molecular level. Glaucoma is commonly known as a ‘silent thief of sight’, as it remains asymptomatic until later stages, and thus its diagnosis is frequently delayed. Thereby, detailed knowledge about the glaucoma pathophysiology is necessary to develop both biochemical and genetic tests to improve its early diagnosis as well as develop a novel, ground-breaking treatment strategy, as currently used medical therapies against glaucoma are limited and may evoke numerous adverse side-effects in patients.
Collapse
|
7
|
Wang H, Li M, Zhang Z, Xue H, Chen X, Ji Y. Physiological function of myocilin and its role in the pathogenesis of glaucoma in the trabecular meshwork (Review). Int J Mol Med 2018; 43:671-681. [PMID: 30483726 PMCID: PMC6317685 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2018.3992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Myocilin is highly expressed in the trabecular meshwork (TM), which plays an important role in the regulation of intraocular pressure (IOP). Myocilin abnormalities may cause dysfunction of the TM, potentially leading to increased IOP. High IOP is a well‑known primary risk factor for glaucoma. Myocilin mutations are common among glaucoma patients, and they are implicated in juvenile‑onset open‑angle glaucoma (JOAG) and adult‑onset primary open‑angle glaucoma (POAG). Aggregation of aberrant mutant myocilins is closely associated with glaucoma pathogenesis. The aim of the present review was to discuss the recent findings regarding the major physiological functions of myocilin, such as intra‑ and extracellular proteolytic processes. We also aimed to discuss the risk factors associated with myocilin and the development of glaucoma, such as misfolded/mutant myocilin, imbalance of myocilin and extracellular proteins, and instability of mutant myocilin associated with temperature. Finally, we further outlined certain issues that are yet to be resolved, which may represent the basis for future studies on the role of myocilin in glaucoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jingjiang People's Hospital, Jingjiang, Jiangsu 214500, P.R. China
| | - Mingzhe Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai 201399, P.R. China
| | - Zhenzhen Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200011, P.R. China
| | - Haifeng Xue
- Public Health School, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang 161006, P.R. China
| | - Xing Chen
- Department of Science and Education, Jingjiang People's Hospital, Jingjiang, Jiangsu 214500, P.R. China
| | - Yong Ji
- Department of General Surgery, Jingjiang People's Hospital, Jingjiang, Jiangsu 214500, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Yap TE, Donna P, Almonte MT, Cordeiro MF. Real-Time Imaging of Retinal Ganglion Cell Apoptosis. Cells 2018; 7:E60. [PMID: 29914056 PMCID: PMC6025611 DOI: 10.3390/cells7060060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Monitoring real-time apoptosis in-vivo is an unmet need of neurodegeneration science, both in clinical and research settings. For patients, earlier diagnosis before the onset of symptoms provides a window of time in which to instigate treatment. For researchers, being able to objectively monitor the rates of underlying degenerative processes at a cellular level provides a biomarker with which to test novel therapeutics. The DARC (Detection of Apoptosing Retinal Cells) project has developed a minimally invasive method using fluorescent annexin A5 to detect rates of apoptosis in retinal ganglion cells, the key pathological process in glaucoma. Numerous animal studies have used DARC to show efficacy of novel, pressure-independent treatment strategies in models of glaucoma and other conditions where retinal apoptosis is reported, including Alzheimer’s disease. This may forge exciting new links in the clinical science of treating both cognitive and visual decline. Human trials are now underway, successfully demonstrating the safety and efficacy of the technique to differentiate patients with progressive neurodegeneration from healthy individuals. We review the current perspectives on retinal ganglion cell apoptosis, the way in which this can be imaged, and the exciting advantages that these future methods hold in store.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy E Yap
- The Western Eye Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust (ICHNT), London NW1 5QH, UK.
- The Imperial College Ophthalmic Research Group (ICORG), Imperial College London, London NW1 5QH, UK.
| | - Piero Donna
- The Imperial College Ophthalmic Research Group (ICORG), Imperial College London, London NW1 5QH, UK.
| | - Melanie T Almonte
- The Imperial College Ophthalmic Research Group (ICORG), Imperial College London, London NW1 5QH, UK.
| | - Maria Francesca Cordeiro
- The Western Eye Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust (ICHNT), London NW1 5QH, UK.
- The Imperial College Ophthalmic Research Group (ICORG), Imperial College London, London NW1 5QH, UK.
- Glaucoma and Retinal Neurodegeneration Group, Department of Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London EC1V 9EL, UK.
| |
Collapse
|