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Facile Preparation of PNA-Peptide Conjugates with a Polar Maleimide-Thioether Linkage. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2105:97-118. [PMID: 32088866 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0243-0_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Conjugation of a delivery peptide containing a thiol functionality (e.g., a cysteine residue) with a PNA oligomer displaying a single unprotected aliphatic primary amine (e.g., the N-terminus or a C-terminal lysine residue) can be achieved via a one-pot modification with a bisfunctional maleimide linker also displaying a reactive N-hydroxysuccinimidyl ester group (e.g., Mal-PEG2-OSu). Here, an optimized protocol with respect to ratios between the reactants as well as recommended reaction times is presented. Formation and conversion of the maleimide-PNA intermediate was followed by analytical HPLC as exemplified by its conjugation to (KFF)3K-Cys-NH2. In addition, the reaction time required for direct conversion of a preformed Mal-(CH2)2-(C=O)-PNA oligomer in the presence of a slight excess of thiol-modified peptide (with a varying degree of sterical hindrance: HS-(CH2)2-CONH-(KFF)3K-NH2, (KFF)3K-hCys-NH2 and (KFF)3K-Cys-NH2) is provided.
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2
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Patil NA. Conjugation Approaches for Peptide-Mediated Delivery of Oligonucleotides Therapeutics. Aust J Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1071/ch21131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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3
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Chin SL, Lu Q, Dane EL, Dominguez L, McKnight CJ, Straub JE, Grinstaff MW. Combined Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Experimental Studies of the Structure and Dynamics of Poly-Amido-Saccharides. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:6532-40. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b01837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Qing Lu
- Division
of Materials Science and Engineering, Boston University, Brookline, Massachusetts 02446, United States
| | | | | | | | - John E. Straub
- Division
of Materials Science and Engineering, Boston University, Brookline, Massachusetts 02446, United States
| | - Mark W. Grinstaff
- Division
of Materials Science and Engineering, Boston University, Brookline, Massachusetts 02446, United States
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4
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Canady TD, Telmer CA, Oyaghire SN, Armitage BA, Bruchez MP. In Vitro Reversible Translation Control Using γPNA Probes. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:10268-75. [PMID: 26241615 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b05351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
On-demand regulation of gene expression in living cells is a central goal of chemical biology and antisense therapeutic development. While significant advances have allowed regulatory modulation through inserted genetic elements, on-demand control of the expression/translation state of a given native gene by complementary sequence interactions remains a technical challenge. Toward this objective, we demonstrate the reversible suppression of a luciferase gene in cell-free translation using Watson-Crick base pairing between the mRNA and a complementary γ-modified peptide nucleic acid (γPNA) sequence with a noncomplementary toehold. Exploiting the favorable thermodynamics of γPNA-γPNA interactions, the antisense sequence can be removed by hybridization of a second, fully complementary γPNA, through a strand displacement reaction, allowing translation to proceed. Complementary RNA is also shown to displace the bound antisense γPNA, opening up possibilities of in vivo regulation by native gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor D Canady
- †Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Biological Sciences, and §Center for Nucleic Acids Science and Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Cheryl A Telmer
- †Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Biological Sciences, and §Center for Nucleic Acids Science and Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Stanley N Oyaghire
- †Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Biological Sciences, and §Center for Nucleic Acids Science and Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Bruce A Armitage
- †Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Biological Sciences, and §Center for Nucleic Acids Science and Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Marcel P Bruchez
- †Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Biological Sciences, and §Center for Nucleic Acids Science and Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
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5
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Järver P, Zaghloul EM, Arzumanov AA, Saleh AF, McClorey G, Hammond SM, Hällbrink M, Langel Ü, Smith CIE, Wood MJA, Gait MJ, El Andaloussi S. Peptide nanoparticle delivery of charge-neutral splice-switching morpholino oligonucleotides. Nucleic Acid Ther 2015; 25:65-77. [PMID: 25594433 PMCID: PMC4376484 DOI: 10.1089/nat.2014.0511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligonucleotide analogs have provided novel therapeutics targeting various disorders. However, their poor cellular uptake remains a major obstacle for their clinical development. Negatively charged oligonucleotides, such as 2′-O-Methyl RNA and locked nucleic acids have in recent years been delivered successfully into cells through complex formation with cationic polymers, peptides, liposomes, or similar nanoparticle delivery systems. However, due to the lack of electrostatic interactions, this promising delivery method has been unsuccessful to date using charge-neutral oligonucleotide analogs. We show here that lipid-functionalized cell-penetrating peptides can be efficiently exploited for cellular transfection of the charge-neutral oligonucleotide analog phosphorodiamidate morpholino. The lipopeptides form complexes with splice-switching phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotide and can be delivered into clinically relevant cell lines that are otherwise difficult to transfect while retaining biological activity. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show delivery through complex formation of biologically active charge-neutral oligonucleotides by cationic peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Järver
- 1 Medical Research Council , Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Gambari R. Peptide nucleic acids: a review on recent patents and technology transfer. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2014; 24:267-94. [PMID: 24405414 DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2014.863874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION DNA/RNA-based drugs are considered of major interest in molecular diagnosis and nonviral gene therapy. In this field, peptide nucleic acids (PNAs, DNA analogs in which the sugar-phosphate backbone is replaced by N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine units or similar building blocks) have been demonstrated to be excellent candidates as diagnostic reagents and biodrugs. AREAS COVERED Recent (2002 - 2013) patents based on studies on development of PNA analogs, delivery systems for PNAs, applications of PNAs in molecular diagnosis, and use of PNA for innovative therapeutic protocols. EXPERT OPINION PNAs are unique reagents in molecular diagnosis and have been proven to be very active and specific for alteration of gene expression, despite the fact that solubility and uptake by target cells can be limiting factors. Accordingly, patents on PNAs have taken in great consideration delivery strategies. PNAs have been proven stable and effective in vivo, despite the fact that possible long-term toxicity should be considered. For possible clinical applications, the use of PNA molecules in combination with drugs already employed in therapy has been suggested. Considering the patents available and the results on in vivo testing on animal models, we expect in the near future relevant PNA-based clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Gambari
- University of Ferrara, Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Section , Via Fossato di Mortara n.74, 44100 Ferrara , Italy +39 532 974443 ; +39 532 974500 ;
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7
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Luo J, Lv W, Deng Y, Sun Y. Cellulose-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid conjugates protect mammalian cells from bacterial cells. Biomacromolecules 2013; 14:1054-62. [PMID: 23458445 DOI: 10.1021/bm301922z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cellulose-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) conjugates were synthesized by the esterification of cellulose with ethylenediaminetetraacetic dianhydride (EDTAD). The new materials provided potent antimicrobial activities against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus, Gram-positive bacteria) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa, Gram-negative bacteria), and inhibited the formation of bacterial biofilms. The biocompatibility of the new cellulose-EDTA conjugates was evaluated with mouse skin fibroblasts for up to 14 days. SEM observation and DNA content analysis suggested that the new materials sustained the viability of fibroblast cells. Moreover, in mouse skin fibroblast-bacteria co-culture systems, the new cellulose-EDTA conjugates prevented bacterial biofilm formation and protected the mammalian cells from the bacterial cells for at least one day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Luo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, Massachusetts 01842, USA
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8
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Das I, Désiré J, Manvar D, Baussanne I, Pandey VN, Décout JL. A peptide nucleic acid-aminosugar conjugate targeting transactivation response element of HIV-1 RNA genome shows a high bioavailability in human cells and strongly inhibits tat-mediated transactivation of HIV-1 transcription. J Med Chem 2012; 55:6021-32. [PMID: 22698070 PMCID: PMC3400927 DOI: 10.1021/jm300253q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The 6-aminoglucosamine ring of the aminoglycoside antibiotic neomycin B (ring II) was conjugated to a 16-mer peptide nucleic acid (PNA) targeting HIV-1 TAR RNA. For this purpose, we prepared the aminoglucosamine monomer 15 and attached it to the protected PNA prior to its cleavage from the solid support. We found that the resulting PNA-aminoglucosamine conjugate is stable under acidic conditions, efficiently taken up by the human cells and fairly distributed in both cytosol and nucleus without endosomal entrapment because cotreatment with endosome-disrupting agent had no effect on its cellular distribution. The conjugate displayed very high target specificity in vitro and strongly inhibited Tat mediated transactivation of HIV-1 LTR transcription in a cell culture system. The unique properties of this new class of PNA conjugate suggest it to be a potential candidate for therapeutic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indrajit Das
- Université de Grenoble I/CNRS, UMR 5063, Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire, ICMG FR 2607, 470 rue de la Chimie BP 53 F-38041 Grenoble, France
| | - Jérôme Désiré
- Université de Grenoble I/CNRS, UMR 5063, Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire, ICMG FR 2607, 470 rue de la Chimie BP 53 F-38041 Grenoble, France
| | - Dinesh Manvar
- Center for the Study of Emerging and Re-emerging Pathogens, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 185 South Orange Avenue, Newark, New Jersey 07103, USA
| | - Isabelle Baussanne
- Université de Grenoble I/CNRS, UMR 5063, Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire, ICMG FR 2607, 470 rue de la Chimie BP 53 F-38041 Grenoble, France
| | - Virendra N. Pandey
- Center for the Study of Emerging and Re-emerging Pathogens, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 185 South Orange Avenue, Newark, New Jersey 07103, USA
| | - Jean-Luc Décout
- Université de Grenoble I/CNRS, UMR 5063, Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire, ICMG FR 2607, 470 rue de la Chimie BP 53 F-38041 Grenoble, France
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Li D, Yang Z, Long Y, Zhao G, Lv B, Hiew S, Ng MTT, Guo J, Tan H, Zhang H, Yuan W, Su H, Li T. Precise engineering and visualization of signs and magnitudes of DNA writhe on the basis of PNA invasion. Chem Commun (Camb) 2011; 47:10695-7. [PMID: 21892494 DOI: 10.1039/c1cc13158c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
It is demonstrated that the right and left handedness of DNA supercoils can be engineered precisely and readily at the molecular level in vitro through utilization of the invading property of peptide nucleic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawei Li
- RecDivision of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore
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Abes R, Arzumanov AA, Saleh AF, Said Hassane F, Gait MJ, Lebleu B. Splice redirection as a convenient assay to monitor CPP-ON efficiency and mechanism. Methods Mol Biol 2011; 683:307-20. [PMID: 21053139 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60761-919-2_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Several strategies based on synthetic oligonucleotides (ON) have been proposed to control gene expression. As for most biomolecules, however, delivery has remained a major roadblock for in vivo applications. Conjugation of steric-block neutral DNA mimics, such as peptide nucleic acids (PNA) or phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotides (PMO), to cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) has recently been proposed as a new delivery strategy. It is particularly suitable for sequence-specific interference with pre-mRNA splicing, thus offering various applications in fundamental research and in therapeutics. The chemical synthesis of these CPP-ON conjugates will be described as well as easy-to-implement assays to monitor cellular uptake, endosome leakage, and efficiency of splicing redirection.
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11
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Kateb B, Chiu K, Black KL, Yamamoto V, Khalsa B, Ljubimova JY, Ding H, Patil R, Portilla-Arias JA, Modo M, Moore DF, Farahani K, Okun MS, Prakash N, Neman J, Ahdoot D, Grundfest W, Nikzad S, Heiss JD. Nanoplatforms for constructing new approaches to cancer treatment, imaging, and drug delivery: what should be the policy? Neuroimage 2011; 54 Suppl 1:S106-24. [PMID: 20149882 PMCID: PMC3524337 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.01.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2009] [Revised: 01/22/2010] [Accepted: 01/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanotechnology is the design and assembly of submicroscopic devices called nanoparticles, which are 1-100 nm in diameter. Nanomedicine is the application of nanotechnology for the diagnosis and treatment of human disease. Disease-specific receptors on the surface of cells provide useful targets for nanoparticles. Because nanoparticles can be engineered from components that (1) recognize disease at the cellular level, (2) are visible on imaging studies, and (3) deliver therapeutic compounds, nanotechnology is well suited for the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of diseases. Nanotechnology will enable earlier detection and treatment of diseases that are best treated in their initial stages, such as cancer. Advances in nanotechnology will also spur the discovery of new methods for delivery of therapeutic compounds, including genes and proteins, to diseased tissue. A myriad of nanostructured drugs with effective site-targeting can be developed by combining a diverse selection of targeting, diagnostic, and therapeutic components. Incorporating immune target specificity with nanostructures introduces a new type of treatment modality, nano-immunochemotherapy, for patients with cancer. In this review, we will discuss the development and potential applications of nanoscale platforms in medical diagnosis and treatment. To impact the care of patients with neurological diseases, advances in nanotechnology will require accelerated translation to the fields of brain mapping, CNS imaging, and nanoneurosurgery. Advances in nanoplatform, nano-imaging, and nano-drug delivery will drive the future development of nanomedicine, personalized medicine, and targeted therapy. We believe that the formation of a science, technology, medicine law-healthcare policy (STML) hub/center, which encourages collaboration among universities, medical centers, US government, industry, patient advocacy groups, charitable foundations, and philanthropists, could significantly facilitate such advancements and contribute to the translation of nanotechnology across medical disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babak Kateb
- Brain Mapping Foundation, West Hollywood, CA 90046, USA.
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12
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Oh SY, Ju Y, Kim S, Park H. PNA-based antisense oligonucleotides for micrornas inhibition in the absence of a transfection reagent. Oligonucleotides 2010; 20:225-30. [PMID: 20946011 DOI: 10.1089/oli.2010.0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are noncoding RNAs approximately 22 nucleotides in length that play a major role in the regulation of important biological processes, including cellular development, differentiation, and apoptosis. Antisense oligonucleotides against miRNAs are useful tools for studying the biological mechanisms and therapeutic targets of miRNAs. Various antisense oligonucleotides chemistries, including peptide nucleic acids (PNAs), have been developed to enhance nuclease-resistance and affinity and specificity for miRNA targets. PNAs have a greater specificity and affinity for DNA and RNA than do natural nucleic acids, and they are resistant to nucleases-an essential property of an miRNA inhibitor that will be exposed to cellular nucleases. However, the main limiting factor in the use of PNAs is their reduced penetration into cells. Recently, several cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been investigated as a means to overcome the limited penetration of PNAs. Here, we evaluated the ability of 11 CPPs to transport PNAs inside cells in the absence of transfection reagents and then investigated the ability of these CPPs to inhibit miRNAs. Of the 11 CPPs tested, Tat-modified-conjugated PNA showed the most effective penetration into cells in the absence of transfection reagents and most effectively inhibited miRNAs. Our data demonstrate that Tat-modified-conjugated CPP is the most suitable for supporting PNA-mediated miRNA inhibition.
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13
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Appella DH. Non-natural nucleic acids for synthetic biology. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2009; 13:687-96. [PMID: 19879178 PMCID: PMC3152792 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2009] [Revised: 09/24/2009] [Accepted: 09/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Genetic manipulation is an important facet of synthetic biology but can be complicated by undesired nuclease degradation. Incorporating non-natural nucleic acids into a gene could convey resistance to nucleases and promote expression. The compatibility of non-natural nucleosides with polymerases is reviewed with a focus on results from the past two years. Details are provided about how the different systems could be useful in synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel H Appella
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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14
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Pandey VN, Upadhyay A, Chaubey B. Prospects for antisense peptide nucleic acid (PNA) therapies for HIV. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2009; 9:975-89. [PMID: 19534584 DOI: 10.1517/14712590903052877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Since the discovery and synthesis of a novel DNA mimic, peptide nucleic acid (PNA) in 1991, PNAs have attracted tremendous interest and have shown great promise as potential antisense drugs. They have been used extensively as tools for specific modulation of gene expression by targeting translation or transcription processes. This review discusses the present and future therapeutic potential of this class of compound as anti-HIV-1 drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virendra N Pandey
- University of Medicine and Dentistry, New Jersey-New Jersey Medical School, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
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15
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Belting M, Wittrup A. Macromolecular Drug Delivery: Basic Principles and Therapeutic Applications. Mol Biotechnol 2009; 43:89-94. [DOI: 10.1007/s12033-009-9185-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2009] [Accepted: 05/05/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Shen N, Ko JH, Xiao G, Wesolowski D, Shan G, Geller B, Izadjoo M, Altman S. Inactivation of expression of several genes in a variety of bacterial species by EGS technology. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:8163-8. [PMID: 19416872 PMCID: PMC2688897 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0903491106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The expression of gene products in bacteria can be inhibited by the use of RNA external guide sequences (EGSs) that hybridize to a target mRNA. Endogenous RNase P cleaves the mRNA in the complex, making it inactive. EGSs participate in this biochemical reaction as the data presented here show. They promote mRNA cleavage at the expected site and sometimes at other secondary sites. Higher-order structure must affect these reactions if the cleavage does not occur at the defined site, which has been determined by techniques based on their ability to find sites that are accessible to the EGS oligonucleotides. Sites defined by a random EGS technique occur as expected. Oligonucleotides made up primarily of defined or random nucleotides are extremely useful in inhibiting expression of the gyrA and rnpA genes from several different bacteria or the cat gene that determines resistance to chloramphenicol in Escherichia coli. An EGS made up of a peptide-phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotide (PPMO) does not cleave at the same site as an unmodified RNA EGS for reasons that are only partly understood. However, PPMO-EGSs are useful in inhibiting the expression of targeted genes from Gram-negative and Gram-positive organisms during ordinary growth in broth and may provide a basis for broad-spectrum antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Shen
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Jae-hyeong Ko
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Gaoping Xiao
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Donna Wesolowski
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Ge Shan
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Bruce Geller
- AVI BioPharma, Inc., Corvallis, OR 97333
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331; and
| | - Mina Izadjoo
- Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC 20306-6000
| | - Sidney Altman
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
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