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Smc5/6 silences episomal transcription by a three-step function. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2022; 29:922-931. [PMID: 36097294 DOI: 10.1038/s41594-022-00829-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In addition to its role in chromosome maintenance, the six-membered Smc5/6 complex functions as a restriction factor that binds to and transcriptionally silences viral and other episomal DNA. However, the underlying mechanism is unknown. Here, we show that transcriptional silencing by the human Smc5/6 complex is a three-step process. The first step is entrapment of the episomal DNA by a mechanism dependent on Smc5/6 ATPase activity and a function of its Nse4a subunit for which the Nse4b paralog cannot substitute. The second step results in Smc5/6 recruitment to promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies by SLF2 (the human ortholog of Nse6). The third step promotes silencing through a mechanism requiring Nse2 but not its SUMO ligase activity. By contrast, the related cohesin and condensin complexes fail to bind to or silence episomal DNA, indicating a property unique to Smc5/6.
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Rintz E, Higuchi T, Kobayashi H, Galileo DS, Wegrzyn G, Tomatsu S. Promoter considerations in the design of lentiviral vectors for use in treating lysosomal storage diseases. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2022; 24:71-87. [PMID: 34977274 PMCID: PMC8688940 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2021.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
More than 50 lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs) are associated with lysosomal dysfunctions with the frequency of 1:5,000 live births. As a result of missing enzyme activity, the lysosome dysfunction accumulates undegraded or partially degraded molecules, affecting the entire body. Most of them are life-threatening diseases where patients could die within the first or second decade of life. Approximately 20 LSDs have the approved treatments, which do not provide the cure for the disorder. Therefore, the delivery of missing genes through gene therapy is a promising approach for LSDs. Over the years, ex vivo lentiviral-mediated gene therapy for LSDs has been approached using different strategies. Several clinical trials for LSDs are under investigation.Ex vivo lentiviral-mediated gene therapy needs optimization in dose, time of delivery, and promoter-driven expression. Choosing suitable promoters seems to be one of the important factors for the effective expression of the dysfunctional enzyme. This review summarizes the research on therapy for LSDs that has used different lentiviral vectors, emphasizing gene promoters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estera Rintz
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza, 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland
- Nemours/Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children, 1600 Rockland Road, Wilmington, DE 19803, USA
| | - Takashi Higuchi
- Division of Gene Therapy, Research Center for Medical Sciences, The Jikei University School of Medicine, 3 Chome-25-8 Nishishinbashi, Minato City, Tokyo 105-8461, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kobayashi
- Division of Gene Therapy, Research Center for Medical Sciences, The Jikei University School of Medicine, 3 Chome-25-8 Nishishinbashi, Minato City, Tokyo 105-8461, Japan
| | - Deni S. Galileo
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, 118 Wolf Hall, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Grzegorz Wegrzyn
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza, 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Shunji Tomatsu
- Nemours/Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children, 1600 Rockland Road, Wilmington, DE 19803, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, 118 Wolf Hall, Newark, DE 19716, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Gifu University, Gifu, Yanagido 501-1193, Japan
- Department of Pediatrics, Thomas Jefferson University, 901 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
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Ramirez GA, Gasmi M. Manufacturing of Viral Gene Therapies. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2021; 61:91-112. [PMID: 34196319 DOI: 10.1097/iio.0000000000000362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Lin YY, Belle I, Blasi M, Huang MN, Buckley AF, Rountree W, Klotman ME, Cara A, Negri D. Skeletal Muscle Is an Antigen Reservoir in Integrase-Defective Lentiviral Vector-Induced Long-Term Immunity. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2020; 17:532-544. [PMID: 32258216 PMCID: PMC7114633 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2020.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
We previously developed integrase-defective lentiviral vectors (IDLVs) as an antigen delivery system for inducing strong and prolonged immunity in animal models. Here, we examined the association between persistence of antigen expression and durability of immune response. Following a single intramuscular (i.m.) or subcutaneous (s.c.) injection of IDLV delivering GFP in mice, we evaluated antigen expression and inflammation at the site of injection and persistence of antigen-specific T cells at early and late time points. Durable antigen expression was detected up to 90 days only after i.m. immunization. Mononuclear inflammation was evident soon after IDLV injection in both i.m. and s.c. immunized mice, but remained detectable up to 30 days postinjection only in i.m. immunized mice. Similarly, GFP-specific T cells were more persistent in the i.m. immunized mice. Interestingly, GFP+ muscle fibers were co-expressing major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, suggesting that muscle cells are competent for presenting antigens to T cells in vivo. In in vitro experiments, we demonstrated that although both primary myoblasts and myocytes present the antigen to GFP-specific T cells through MHC class I, myoblasts are more resistant to Fas-dependent cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) killing activity. Overall, these data indicate that muscle cells may serve as an antigen reservoir that contributes to the long-term immunity induced by IDLV vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Yu Lin
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Ian Belle
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Maria Blasi
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Min-Nung Huang
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Anne F. Buckley
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Wes Rountree
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Mary E. Klotman
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Andrea Cara
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Donatella Negri
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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Gallinaro A, Borghi M, Bona R, Grasso F, Calzoletti L, Palladino L, Cecchetti S, Vescio MF, Macchia D, Morante V, Canitano A, Temperton N, Castrucci MR, Salvatore M, Michelini Z, Cara A, Negri D. Integrase Defective Lentiviral Vector as a Vaccine Platform for Delivering Influenza Antigens. Front Immunol 2018; 9:171. [PMID: 29459873 PMCID: PMC5807328 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral vectors represent an attractive technology for vaccine delivery. We exploited the integrase defective lentiviral vector (IDLV) as a platform for delivering relevant antigens within the context of the ADITEC collaborative research program. In particular, Influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) and nucleoprotein (NP) were delivered by IDLVs while H1N1 A/California/7/2009 subunit vaccine (HAp) with or without adjuvant was used to compare the immune response in a murine model of immunization. In order to maximize the antibody response against HA, both IDLVs were also pseudotyped with HA (IDLV-HA/HA and IDLV-NP/HA, respectively). Groups of CB6F1 mice were immunized intramuscularly with a single dose of IDLV-NP/HA, IDLV-HA/HA, HAp alone, or with HAp together with the systemic adjuvant MF59. Six months after the vaccine prime all groups were boosted with HAp alone. Cellular and antibody responses to influenza antigens were measured at different time points after the immunizations. Mice immunized with HA-pseudotyped IDLVs showed similar levels of anti-H1N1 IgG over time, evaluated by ELISA, which were comparable to those induced by HAp + MF59 vaccination, but significantly higher than those induced by HAp alone. The boost with HAp alone induced an increase of antibodies in all groups, and the responses were maintained at higher levels up to 18 weeks post-boost. The antibody response was functional and persistent overtime, capable of neutralizing virus infectivity, as evaluated by hemagglutination inhibition and microneutralization assays. Moreover, since neuraminidase (NA)-expressing plasmid was included during IDLV preparation, immunization with IDLV-NP/HA and IDLV-HA/HA also induced functional anti-NA antibodies, evaluated by enzyme-linked lectin assay. IFNγ-ELISPOT showed evidence of HA-specific response in IDLV-HA/HA immunized animals and persistent NP-specific CD8+ T cell response in IDLV-NP/HA immunized mice. Taken together our results indicate that IDLV can be harnessed for producing a vaccine able to induce a comprehensive immune response, including functional antibodies directed toward HA and NA proteins present on the vector particles in addition to a functional T cell response directed to the protein transcribed from the vector.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martina Borghi
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Bona
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Felicia Grasso
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Calzoletti
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Serena Cecchetti
- Confocal Microscopy Unit NMR, Confocal Microscopy Area Core Facilities, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Daniele Macchia
- Center for Animal Research and Welfare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Morante
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Canitano
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Nigel Temperton
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, University of Kent, Kent, United Kingdom
| | | | - Mirella Salvatore
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, United States
| | - Zuleika Michelini
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Cara
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Donatella Negri
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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Sharon D, Kamen A. Advancements in the design and scalable production of viral gene transfer vectors. Biotechnol Bioeng 2017; 115:25-40. [PMID: 28941274 DOI: 10.1002/bit.26461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2017] [Revised: 09/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The last 10 years have seen a rapid expansion in the use of viral gene transfer vectors, with approved therapies and late stage clinical trials underway for the treatment of genetic disorders, and multiple forms of cancer, as well as prevention of infectious diseases through vaccination. With this increased interest and widespread adoption of viral vectors by clinicians and biopharmaceutical industries, there is an imperative to engineer safer and more efficacious vectors, and develop robust, scalable and cost-effective production platforms for industrialization. This review will focus on major innovations in viral vector design and production systems for three of the most widely used viral vectors: Adenovirus, Adeno-Associated Virus, and Lentivirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Sharon
- Department of Bioengineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Amine Kamen
- Department of Bioengineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Michelini Z, Negri D, Biava M, Baroncelli S, Spada M, Leone P, Bona R, Blasi M, Nègre D, Klotman ME, Cara A. Murine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor expressed from a bicistronic simian immunodeficiency virus-based integrase-defective lentiviral vector does not enhance T-cell responses in mice. Viral Immunol 2015; 27:512-20. [PMID: 25343523 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2014.0062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
As a prelude to immunization studies in nonhuman primates, we compared in mice the immunogenicity of a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-based integrase (IN)-defective lentiviral vector (IDLV) encoding the model antigen-enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) in the presence or absence of the murine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (mGM-CSF) expressed from an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) sequence. BALB/c mice were immunized once intramuscularly with IDLV expressing eGFP alone or eGFP and mGM-CSF and immune responses were evaluated up to 90 days from the single intramuscular immunization. Results indicated that the mGM-CSF was unable to improve the magnitude and quality of the immune response against the eGFP transgene in the context of the SIV-based IDLV, as evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISPOT) assays for interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and by intracellular cytokine staining for IFN-γ, interleukin-2 (IL-2), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). These findings suggest that for vaccination purposes, the presence of mGM-CSF expressed after the IRES in a SIV-based IDLV system does not favor the improvement of the immunological response against the transgene of interest. Further studies should investigate whether the selection of a different cytokine gene might improve the immune response against the transgene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuleika Michelini
- 1 Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome, Italy
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Pridans C, Lillico S, Whitelaw B, Hume DA. Lentiviral vectors containing mouse Csf1r control elements direct macrophage-restricted expression in multiple species of birds and mammals. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2014; 1:14010. [PMID: 26015955 PMCID: PMC4362345 DOI: 10.1038/mtm.2014.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The development of macrophages requires signaling through the lineage-restricted receptor Csf1r. Macrophage-restricted expression of transgenic reporters based upon Csf1r requires the highly conserved Fms-intronic regulatory element (FIRE). We have created a lentiviral construct containing mouse FIRE and promoter. The lentivirus is capable of directing macrophage-restricted reporter gene expression in mouse, rat, human, pig, cow, sheep, and even chicken. Rat bone marrow cells transduced with the lentivirus were capable of differentiating into macrophages expressing the reporter gene in vitro. Macrophage-restricted expression may be desirable for immunization or immune response modulation, and for gene therapy for lysosomal storage diseases and some immunodeficiencies. The small size of the Csf1r transcription control elements will allow the insertion of large "cargo" for applications in gene therapy and vaccine delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Pridans
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Scotland , UK
| | - Simon Lillico
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Scotland , UK
| | - Bruce Whitelaw
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Scotland , UK
| | - David A Hume
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Scotland , UK
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Shen ZZ, Pan X, Miao LF, Ye HQ, Chavanas S, Davrinche C, McVoy M, Luo MH. Comprehensive analysis of human cytomegalovirus microRNA expression during lytic and quiescent infection. PLoS One 2014; 9:e88531. [PMID: 24533100 PMCID: PMC3922878 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) encodes microRNAs (miRNAs) that function as post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression during lytic infection in permissive cells. Some miRNAs have been shown to suppress virus replication, which could help HCMV to establish or maintain latent infection. However, HCMV miRNA expression has not been comprehensively examined and compared using cell culture systems representing permissive (lytic) and semi-permissive vs. non-permissive (latent-like) infection. METHODS Viral miRNAs levels and expression kinetics during HCMV infection were determined by miRNA-specific stem-loop RT-PCR. HCMV infected THP-1 (non-permissive), differentiated THP-1 (d-THP-1, semi-permissive) and human embryo lung fibroblasts (HELs, fully-permissive) were examined. The impact of selected miRNAs on HCMV infection (gene expression, genome replication and virus release) was determined by Western blotting, RT-PCR, qPCR, and plaque assay. RESULTS Abundant expression of 15 HCMV miRNAs was observed during lytic infection in HELs; highest peak inductions (11- to 1502-fold) occurred at 48 hpi. In d-THP-1s, fourteen mRNAs were detected with moderate induction (3- to 288-fold), but kinetics of expression was generally delayed for 24 h relative to HELs. In contrast, only three miRNAs were induced to low levels (3- to 4-fold) during quiescent infection in THP-1s. Interestingly, miR-UL70-3p was poorly induced in HEL (1.5-fold), moderately in THP-1s (4-fold), and strongly (58-fold) in d-THP-1s, suggesting a potentially specific role for miR-UL70-3p in THP-1s and d-THP-1s. MiR-US33, -UL22A and -UL70 were further evaluated for their impact on HCMV replication in HELs. Ectopic expression of miR-UL22A and miR-UL70 did not affect HCMV replication in HELs, whereas miR-US33 inhibited HCMV replication and reduced levels of HCMV US29 mRNA, confirming that US29 is a target of miR-US33. CONCLUSIONS Viral miRNA expression kinetics differs between permissive, semi-permissive and quiescent infections, and miR-US33 down-regulates HCMV replication. These results suggest that miR-US33 may function to impair entry into lytic replication and hence promote establishment of latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang-Zhou Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xing Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Ling-Feng Miao
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Han-Qing Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | | | | | - Michael McVoy
- Department of Pediatrics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Min-Hua Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- * E-mail:
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Hu B, Tai A, Wang P. Immunization delivered by lentiviral vectors for cancer and infectious diseases. Immunol Rev 2011; 239:45-61. [PMID: 21198664 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2010.00967.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The increasing level of understanding of the lentivirus biology has been instrumental in shaping the design strategy of creating therapeutic lentiviral delivery vectors. As a result, lentiviral vectors have become one of the most powerful gene transfer vehicles. They are widely used for therapeutic purposes as well as in studies of basic biology, due to their unique characteristics. Lentiviral vectors have been successfully employed to mediate durable and efficient antigen expression and presentation in dendritic cells both in vitro and in vivo, leading to the activation of cellular immunity and humoral responses. This capability makes the lentiviral vector an ideal choice for immunizations that target a wide range of cancers and infectious diseases. Further advances into optimizing the vector system and understanding the relationship between the immune system and diseases pathogenesis will only augment the potential benefits and utility of lentiviral vaccines for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biliang Hu
- Mork Family Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
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Sloan RD, Wainberg MA. The role of unintegrated DNA in HIV infection. Retrovirology 2011; 8:52. [PMID: 21722380 PMCID: PMC3148978 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-8-52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2011] [Accepted: 07/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Integration of the reverse transcribed viral genome into host chromatin is the hallmark of retroviral replication. Yet, during natural HIV infection, various unintegrated viral DNA forms exist in abundance. Though linear viral cDNA is the precursor to an integrated provirus, increasing evidence suggests that transcription and translation of unintegrated DNAs prior to integration may aid productive infection through the expression of early viral genes. Additionally, unintegrated DNA has the capacity to result in preintegration latency, or to be rescued and yield productive infection and so unintegrated DNA, in some circumstances, may be considered to be a viral reservoir. Recently, there has been interest in further defining the role and function of unintegrated viral DNAs, in part because the use of anti-HIV integrase inhibitors leads to an abundance of unintegrated DNA, but also because of the potential use of non-integrating lentiviral vectors in gene therapy and vaccines. There is now increased understanding that unintegrated viral DNA can either arise from, or be degraded through, interactions with host DNA repair enzymes that may represent a form of host antiviral defence. This review focuses on the role of unintegrated DNA in HIV infection and additionally considers the potential implications for antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard D Sloan
- McGill University AIDS Centre, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montréal, QC, Canada
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12
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Lambert MS. Molecular Biosafety. APPLIED BIOSAFETY 2010. [DOI: 10.1177/153567601001500407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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