Polyamine block of inwardly rectifying potassium channels

Molecular mechanism of caloric restriction mimetics-mediated neuroprotection of age-related neurodegenerative diseases: an emerging therapeutic approach

Aging-induced neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are significantly increasing health problem worldwide. It has been well documented that oxidative stress is one of the potential causes of aging and age-related NDs. There are no drugs for the treatment of NDs, therefore there is an immediate necessity for the development of strategies/treatments either to prevent or cure age-related NDs. Caloric restriction (CR) and intermittent fasting have been considered as effective strategies in increasing the healthspan and lifespan, but it is difficult to adhere to these routines strictly, which has led to the development of calorie restriction mimetics (CRMs). CRMs are natural compounds that provide similar molecular and biochemical effects of CR, and activate autophagy process. CRMs have been reported to regulate redox signaling by enhancing the antioxidant defense systems through activation of the Nrf2 pathway, and inhibiting ROS generation through attenuation of mitochondrial dysfunction. Moreover, CRMs also regulate redox-sensitive signaling pathways such as the PI3K/Akt and MAPK pathways to promote neuronal cell survival. Here, we discuss the neuroprotective effects of various CRMs at molecular and cellular levels during aging of the brain. The CRMs are envisaged to become a cornerstone of the pharmaceutical arsenal against aging and age-related pathologies.

A small viral potassium ion channel with an inherent inward rectification

Some algal viruses have coding sequences for proteins with structural and functional characteristics of pore modules of complex K⁺ channels. Here we exploit the structural diversity among these channel orthologs to discover new basic principles of structure/function correlates in K⁺ channels. The analysis of three similar K⁺ channels with ≤ 86 amino acids (AA) shows that one channel (Kmpv₁) generates an ohmic conductance in HEK293 cells while the other two (Kmpv_SP1, Kmpv_PL1) exhibit typical features of canonical Kir channels. Like Kir channels, the rectification of the viral channels is a function of the K⁺ driving force. Reconstitution of Kmpv_SP1 and Kmpv_PL1 in planar lipid bilayers showed rapid channel fluctuations only at voltages negative of the K⁺ reversal voltage. This rectification was maintained in KCl buffer with 1 mM EDTA, which excludes blocking cations as the source of rectification. This means that rectification of the viral channels must be an inherent property of the channel. The structural basis for rectification was investigated by a chimera between rectifying and non-rectifying channels as well as point mutations making the rectifier similar to the ohmic conducting channel. The results of these experiments exclude the pore with pore helix and selectivity filter as playing a role in rectification. The insensitivity of the rectifier to point mutations suggests that tertiary or quaternary structural interactions between the transmembrane domains are responsible for this type of gating.

Expression, purification, and electrophysiological characterization of a recombinant, fluorescent Kir6.2 in mammalian cells

The inwardly rectifying K⁺ (Kir) channel, Kir6.2, plays critical roles in physiological processes in the brain, heart, and pancreas. Although Kir6.2 has been extensively studied in numerous expression systems, a comprehensive description of an expression and purification protocol has not been reported. We expressed and characterized a recombinant Kir6.2, with an N-terminal decahistidine tag, enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) and deletion of C-terminal 26 amino acids, in succession, denoted eGFP-Kir6.2Δ26. eGFP-Kir6.2Δ26 was expressed in HEK293 cells and a purification protocol developed. Electrophysiological characterization showed that eGFP-Kir6.2Δ26 retains native single channel conductance (64 ± 3.3 pS), mean open times (τ₁ = 0.72 ms, τ₂ = 15.3 ms) and ATP affinity (IC₅₀ = 115 ± 25 μM) when expressed in HEK293 cells. Detergent screening using size exclusion chromatography (SEC) identified Fos-choline-14 (FC-14) as the most suitable surfactant for protein solubilization, as evidenced by maintenance of the native tetrameric structure in SDS-PAGE and western blot analysis. A two-step scheme using Co²⁺-metal affinity chromatography and SEC was implemented for purification. Purified protein activity was assessed by reconstituting eGFP-Kir6.2Δ26 in black lipid membranes (BLMs) composed of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC), 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (POPG), l-α-phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) in a 89.5:10:0.5 mol ratio. Reconstituted eGFP-Kir6.2Δ26 displayed similar single channel conductance (61.8 ± 0.54 pS) compared to eGFP-Kir6.2Δ26 expressed in HEK293 membranes; however, channel mean open times increased (τ₁ = 7.9 ms, τ₂ = 61.9 ms) and ATP inhibition was significantly reduced for eGFP-Kir6.2Δ26 reconstituted into BLMs (IC₅₀ = 3.14 ± 0.4 mM). Overall, this protocol should be foundational for the production of purified Kir6.2 for future structural and biochemical studies.

How to resolve microsecond current fluctuations in single ion channels: the power of beta distributions

A main ingredient for the understanding of structure/function correlates of ion channels is the quantitative description of single-channel gating and conductance. However, a wealth of information provided from fast current fluctuations beyond the temporal resolution of the recording system is often ignored, even though it is close to the time window accessible to molecular dynamics simulations. This kind of current fluctuations provide a special technical challenge, because individual opening/closing or blocking/unblocking events cannot be resolved, and the resulting averaging over undetected events decreases the single-channel current. Here, I briefly summarize the history of fast-current fluctuation analysis and focus on the so-called "beta distributions." This tool exploits characteristics of current fluctuation-induced excess noise on the current amplitude histograms to reconstruct the true single-channel current and kinetic parameters. A guideline for the analysis and recent applications demonstrate that a construction of theoretical beta distributions by Markov Model simulations offers maximum flexibility as compared to analytical solutions.

Gold nanoparticle-spermidine complex blocks the inward rectifier potassium channel

A previous study showed that negatively charged gold nanoparticles block ion pores by binding to the sulfur group of the cysteine loop of the ion channel when small molecules like amine lead the nanoparticles inside the ion pore. Cells were voltage clamped at -100 mV. Subsequently a bath application of 30 μM Ach produced a current followed by the extracellular application of 100 mM spermidine and 50 nM of nanoparticle complex. Peak amplitude was then recorded. The addition of Ach (30 uM) reversed the effect, and we recorded inhibition of the peak amplitude. We also recorded electrocardiogram (EKG) and the atria effective refractory period (AERP) after treatment with the complex in the atrium of a rabbit heart in a Langendorff apparatus. Upon external application of the complex, the Ach-activated current was blocked by 48.8% ± 3.1% with 82.7% ± 3.1% reversal. In recording the EKG and the AERP after the addition of the complex including 30 mM spermidine with 50 nM nanoparticles, the complete resolution of atrial fibrillation at 50 s and the elongation of AERP from 46 to 52 was observed, which unveils a new class 3 anti arrythmic agent using gold nanoparticles with spermidine. Negatively charged gold nanoparticles (0.8 nm) block ion pores after penetrating the cell membrane with spermidine, thus entering the cells with a polyamine transporter and acting at the intracellular face of the channel via binding to the sulfur group of the human inward rectifying potassium channel- I(KAch).

Genetic defects in the hotspot of inwardly rectifying K(+) (Kir) channels and their metabolic consequences: a review

Inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir) channels are essential for maintaining normal potassium homeostasis and the resting membrane potential. As a consequence, mutations in Kir channels cause debilitating diseases ranging from cardiac failure to renal, ocular, pancreatic, and neurological abnormalities. Structurally, Kir channels consist of two trans-membrane domains, a pore-forming loop that contains the selectivity filter and two cytoplasmic polar tails. Within the cytoplasmic structure, clusters of amino acid sequences form regulatory domains that interact with cellular metabolites to control the opening and closing of the channel. In this review, we present an overview of Kir channel function and recent progress in the characterization of selected Kir channel mutations that lie in and near a C-terminal cytoplasmic 'hotspot' domain. The resultant molecular mechanisms by which the loss or gain of channel function leads to organ failure provide potential opportunities for targeted therapeutic interventions for this important group of channelopathies.