Preparation and characterization of biocompatible chitosan nanoparticles for targeted brain delivery of peptides

Drug delivery platforms for neonatal brain injury

Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), initiated by the interruption of oxygenated blood supply to the brain, is a leading cause of death and lifelong disability in newborns. The pathogenesis of HIE involves a complex interplay of excitotoxicity, inflammation, and oxidative stress that results in acute to long term brain damage and functional impairments. Therapeutic hypothermia is the only approved treatment for HIE but has limited effectiveness for moderate to severe brain damage; thus, pharmacological intervention is explored as an adjunct therapy to hypothermia to further promote recovery. However, the limited bioavailability and the side-effects of systemic administration are factors that hinder the use of the candidate pharmacological agents. To overcome these barriers, therapeutic molecules may be packaged into nanoscale constructs to enable their delivery. Yet, the application of nanotechnology in infants is not well examined, and the neonatal brain presents unique challenges. Novel drug delivery platforms have the potential to magnify therapeutic effects in the damaged brain, mitigate side-effects associated with high systemic doses, and evade mechanisms that remove the drugs from circulation. Encouraging pre-clinical data demonstrates an attenuation of brain damage and increased structural and functional recovery. This review surveys the current progress in drug delivery for treating neonatal brain injury.

Chitosan-Based Nanocarriers for Nose to Brain Delivery

In the treatment of brain diseases, most potent drugs that have been developed exhibit poor therapeutic outcomes resulting from the inability of a therapeutic amount of the drug to reach the brain. These drugs do not exhibit targeted drug delivery mechanisms, resulting in a high concentration of the drugs in vital organs leading to drug toxicity. Chitosan (CS) is a natural-based polymer. It has unique properties such as good biodegradability, biocompatibility, mucoadhesive properties, and it has been approved for biomedical applications. It has been used to develop nanocarriers for brain targeting via intranasal administration. Nanocarriers such as nanoparticles, in situ gels, nanoemulsions, and liposomes have been developed. In vitro and in vivo studies revealed that these nanocarriers exhibited enhanced drug uptake to the brain with reduced side effects resulting from the prolonged contact time of the nanocarriers with the nasal mucosa, the surface charge of the nanocarriers, the nano size of the nanocarriers, and their capability to stretch the tight junctions within the nasal mucosa. The aforementioned unique properties make chitosan a potential material for the development of nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery to the brain. This review will focus on chitosan-based carriers for brain targeting.

Preparation and Characterization of Biocompatible Chitosan Nanoparticles for Targeted Brain Delivery of Peptides

Here, we describe a nanocarrier system that can transfer chitosan nanoparticles loaded with either small peptides such as the caspase inhibitor Z-DEVD-FMK or a large peptide like basic fibroblast growth factor across the blood-brain barrier. The nanoparticles are selectively directed to the brain and are not measurably taken up by the liver and spleen. Intravital fluorescent microscopy provides an opportunity to study the penetration kinetics of nanoparticles loaded with fluorescent agents such as Nile red. Nanoparticles functionalized with anti-transferrin antibody and loaded with peptides efficiently provided neuroprotection when systemically administered either as a formulation bearing a single peptide or a mixture of them. Failure of brain permeation of the nanoparticles after inhibition of vesicular transcytosis by imatinib as well as when nanoparticles were not functionalized with anti-transferrin antibody indicates that this nanomedicine formulation is rapidly transported across the blood-brain barrier by receptor-mediated transcytosis.

Systemically administered brain-targeted nanoparticles transport peptides across the blood-brain barrier and provide neuroprotection

Although growth factors and anti-apoptotic peptides have been shown to be neuroprotective in stroke models, translation of these experimental findings to clinic is hampered by limited penetration of peptides to the brain. Here, we show that a large peptide like the basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and a small peptide inhibitor of caspase-3 (z-DEVD-FMK) can effectively be transported to the brain after systemic administration by incorporating these peptides to brain-targeted nanoparticles (NPs). Chitosan NPs were loaded with peptides and then functionalized by conjugating with antibodies directed against the transferrin receptor-1 on brain endothelia to induce receptor-mediated transcytosis across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Pre-ischemic systemic administration of bFGF- or z-DEVD-FMK-loaded NPs significantly decreased the infarct volume after 2-hour middle cerebral artery occlusion and 22-hour reperfusion in mice. Co-administration of bFGF- or z-DEVD-FMK-loaded NPs reduced the infarct volume further and provided a 3-hour therapeutic window. bFGF-loaded NPs were histologically detected in the brain parenchyma and also restored ischemia-induced Akt dephosphorylation. The neuroprotection was not observed when receptor-mediated transcytosis was inhibited with imatinib or when bFGF-loaded NPs were not conjugated with the targeting antibody, which enables them to cross the BBB. Nanoparticles targeted to brain are promising drug carriers to transport large as well as small BBB-impermeable therapeutics for neuroprotection against stroke.

Nasal-nanotechnology: revolution for efficient therapeutics delivery

CONTEXT

In recent years, nanotechnology-based delivery systems have gained interest to overcome the problems of restricted absorption of therapeutic agents from the nasal cavity, depending upon the physicochemical properties of the drug and physiological properties of the human nose.

OBJECTIVE

The well-tolerated and non-invasive nasal drug delivery when combined with the nanotechnology-based novel formulations and carriers, opens the way for the effective systemic and brain targeting delivery of various therapeutic agents. To accomplish competent drug delivery, it is imperative to recognize the interactions among the nanomaterials and the nasal biological environment, targeting cell-surface receptors, drug release, multiple drug administration, stability of therapeutic agents and molecular mechanisms of cell signaling involved in patho-biology of the disease under consideration.

METHODS

Quite a few systems have been successfully formulated using nanomaterials for intranasal (IN) delivery. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), chitosan, polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) and PLGA-based nanosystems have also been studied in vitro and in vivo for the delivery of several therapeutic agents which shown promising concentrations in the brain after nasal administration.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The use of nanomaterials including peptide-based nanotubes and nanogels (NGs) for vaccine delivery via nasal route is a new approach to control the disease progression. In this review, the recent developments in nanotechnology utilized for nasal drug delivery have been discussed.