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Ranatunga M, Rai R, Richardson SCW, Dyer P, Harbige L, Deacon A, Pecorino L, Getti GTM. Leishmania aethiopica cell-to-cell spreading involves caspase-3, AkT, and NF-κB but not PKC-δ activation and involves uptake of LAMP-1-positive bodies containing parasites. FEBS J 2020; 287:1777-1797. [PMID: 31804757 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Development of human leishmaniasis is dependent on the ability of intracellular Leishmania parasites to spread and enter macrophages. The mechanism through which free promastigotes and amastigotes bind and enter host macrophages has been previously investigated; however, little is known about intracellular trafficking and cell-to-cell spreading. In this study, the mechanism involved in the spreading of Leishmania aethiopica and Leishmania mexicana was investigated. A significant increase in phosphatidylserine (PS) exhibition, cytochrome C release, and active caspase-3 expression was detected (P < 0.05) during L. aethiopica, but not L. mexicana spreading. A decrease (P < 0.05) of protein kinase B (Akt) protein and BCL2-associated agonist of cell death (BAD) phosphorylation was also observed. The nuclear factor kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-kB) signaling pathway and pro-apoptotic protein protein kinase C delta (PKC-δ) were downregulated while inhibition of caspase-3 activation prevented L. aethiopica spreading. Overall suggesting that L. aethiopica induces host cell's apoptosis during spreading in a caspase-3-dependent manner. The trafficking of amastigotes within macrophages following cell-to-cell spreading differed from that of axenic parasites and involved co-localization with lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP-1) within 10 min postinfection. Interestingly, following infection with axenic amastigotes and promastigotes, co-localization of parasites with LAMP-1-positive structures took place at 1 and 4 h, respectively, suggesting that the membrane coat and LAMP-1 protein were derived from the donor cell. Collectively, these findings indicate that host cell apoptosis, demonstrated by PS exhibition, caspase-3 activation, cytochrome C release, downregulation of Akt, BAD phosphorylation, NF-kB activation, and independent of PKC-δ expression, is involved in L. aethiopica spreading. Moreover, L. aethiopica parasites associate with LAMP-rich structures when taken up by neighboring macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rajeev Rai
- University of Greenwich at Medway, Kent, UK
| | | | - Paul Dyer
- University of Greenwich at Medway, Kent, UK
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Shorter SA, Pettit MW, Dyer PDR, Coakley Youngs E, Gorringe-Pattrick MAM, El-Daher S, Richardson S. Green fluorescent protein (GFP): is seeing believing and is that enough? J Drug Target 2017; 25:809-817. [PMID: 28743200 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2017.1358725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Intracellular compartmentalisation is a significant barrier to the successful nucleocytosolic delivery of biologics. The endocytic system has been shown to be responsible for compartmentalisation, providing an entry point, and trigger(s) for the activation of drug delivery systems. Consequently, many of the technologies used to understand endocytosis have found utility within the field of drug delivery. The use of fluorescent proteins as markers denoting compartmentalisation within the endocytic system has become commonplace. Several of the limitations associated with the use of green fluorescent protein (GFP) within the context of drug delivery have been explored here by asking a series of related questions: (1) Are molecules that regulate fusion to a specific compartment (i.e. Rab- or SNARE-GFP fusions) a good choice of marker for that compartment? (2) How reliable was GFP-marker overexpression when used to define a given endocytic compartment? (3) Can glutathione-s-transferase (GST) fused in frame with GFP (GST-GFP) act as a fluid phase endocytic probe? (4) Was GFP fluorescence a robust indicator of (GFP) protein integrity? This study concluded that there are many appropriate and useful applications for GFP; however, thought and an understanding of the biological and physicochemical character of these markers are required for the generation of meaningful data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan A Shorter
- a IDS Laboratory, Department of Life and Sports Science, Faculty of Engineering and Science , University of Greenwich , Chatham , Kent , UK
| | - Marie W Pettit
- a IDS Laboratory, Department of Life and Sports Science, Faculty of Engineering and Science , University of Greenwich , Chatham , Kent , UK
| | - Paul D R Dyer
- a IDS Laboratory, Department of Life and Sports Science, Faculty of Engineering and Science , University of Greenwich , Chatham , Kent , UK
| | - Emma Coakley Youngs
- a IDS Laboratory, Department of Life and Sports Science, Faculty of Engineering and Science , University of Greenwich , Chatham , Kent , UK
| | - Monique A M Gorringe-Pattrick
- a IDS Laboratory, Department of Life and Sports Science, Faculty of Engineering and Science , University of Greenwich , Chatham , Kent , UK
| | - Samer El-Daher
- a IDS Laboratory, Department of Life and Sports Science, Faculty of Engineering and Science , University of Greenwich , Chatham , Kent , UK
| | - Simon Richardson
- a IDS Laboratory, Department of Life and Sports Science, Faculty of Engineering and Science , University of Greenwich , Chatham , Kent , UK
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Dyer PDR, Shepherd TR, Gollings AS, Shorter SA, Gorringe-Pattrick MAM, Tang CK, Cattoz BN, Baillie L, Griffiths PC, Richardson SCW. Disarmed anthrax toxin delivers antisense oligonucleotides and siRNA with high efficiency and low toxicity. J Control Release 2015; 220:316-328. [PMID: 26546271 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.10.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Inefficient cytosolic delivery and vector toxicity contribute to the limited use of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) and siRNA as therapeutics. As anthrax toxin (Atx) accesses the cytosol, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential of disarmed Atx to deliver either ASOs or siRNA. We hypothesized that this delivery strategy would facilitate improved transfection efficiency while eliminating the toxicity seen for many vectors due to membrane destabilization. Atx complex formation with ASOs or siRNA was achieved via the in-frame fusion of either Saccharomyces cerevisiae GAL4 or Homo sapien sapien PKR (respectively) to a truncation of Atx lethal factor (LFn), which were used with Atx protective antigen (PA). Western immunoblotting confirmed the production of: LFN-GAL4, LFn-PKR and PA which were detected at ~45.9 kDa, ~37 kDa, and ~83 kDa respectively and small angle neutron scattering confirmed the ability of PA to form an annular structure with a radius of gyration of 7.0 ± 1.0 nm when placed in serum. In order to form a complex with LFn-GAL4, ASOs were engineered to contain a double-stranded region, and a cell free in vitro translation assay demonstrated that no loss of antisense activity above 30 pmol ASO was evident. The in vitro toxicity of both PA:LFn-GAL4:ASO and PA:LFn-PKR:siRNA complexes was low (IC50>100 μg/mL in HeLa and Vero cells) and subcellular fractionation in conjunction with microscopy confirmed the detection of LFn-GAL4 or LFn-PKR in the cytosol. Syntaxin5 (Synt5) was used as a model target gene to determine pharmacological activity. The PA:LFn-GAL4:ASO complexes had transfection efficiency approximately equivalent to Nucleofection® over a variety of ASO concentrations (24h post-transfection) and during a 72 h time course. In HeLa cells, at 200 pmol ASO (with PA:LFN-GAL4), 5.4 ± 2.0% Synt5 expression was evident relative to an untreated control after 24h. Using 200 pmol ASOs, Nucleofection® reduced Synt5 expression to 8.1 ± 2.1% after 24h. PA:LFn-GAL4:ASO transfection of non- or terminally-differentiated THP-1 cells and Vero cells resulted in 35.2 ± 19.1%, 36.4 ± 1.8% and 22.9 ± 6.9% (respectively) Synt5 expression after treatment with 200 pmol of ASO and demonstrated versatility. Nucleofection® with Stealth RNAi™ siRNA reduced HeLa Synt5 levels to 4.6 ± 6.1% whereas treatment with the PA:LFn-PKR:siRNA resulted in 8.5 ± 3.4% Synt5 expression after 24h (HeLa cells). These studies report for the first time an ASO and RNAi delivery system based upon protein toxin architecture that is devoid of polycations. This system may utilize regulated membrane back-fusion for the cytosolic delivery of ASOs and siRNA, which would account for the lack of toxicity observed. High delivery efficiency suggests further in vivo evaluation is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul D R Dyer
- Intercellular Delivery Solutions Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Thomas R Shepherd
- Intercellular Delivery Solutions Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Alexander S Gollings
- Intercellular Delivery Solutions Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Susan A Shorter
- Intercellular Delivery Solutions Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Monique A M Gorringe-Pattrick
- Intercellular Delivery Solutions Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Chun-Kit Tang
- Intercellular Delivery Solutions Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Beatrice N Cattoz
- Department of Pharmaceutical, Chemical and Environmental Science, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Les Baillie
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Peter C Griffiths
- Department of Pharmaceutical, Chemical and Environmental Science, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Simon C W Richardson
- Intercellular Delivery Solutions Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK.
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Avti PK, Maysinger D, Kakkar A. Alkyne-azide "click" chemistry in designing nanocarriers for applications in biology. Molecules 2013; 18:9531-49. [PMID: 23966076 PMCID: PMC6270461 DOI: 10.3390/molecules18089531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Revised: 08/03/2013] [Accepted: 08/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The alkyne-azide cycloaddition, popularly known as the "click" reaction, has been extensively exploited in molecule/macromolecule build-up, and has offered tremendous potential in the design of nanomaterials for applications in a diverse range of disciplines, including biology. Some advantageous characteristics of this coupling include high efficiency, and adaptability to the environment in which the desired covalent linking of the alkyne and azide terminated moieties needs to be carried out. The efficient delivery of active pharmaceutical agents to specific organelles, employing nanocarriers developed through the use of "click" chemistry, constitutes a continuing topical area of research. In this review, we highlight important contributions click chemistry has made in the design of macromolecule-based nanomaterials for therapeutic intervention in mitochondria and lipid droplets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pramod K. Avti
- Montreal Heart Institute, Research Center, 5000 Bélanger Est, Montréal, QC H1T 1C8, Canada
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W. Montréal, QC H3A 0B8 Canada
| | - Dusica Maysinger
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, 3655 Promenade Sir-William-Osler, Montreal, QC H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | - Ashok Kakkar
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W. Montréal, QC H3A 0B8 Canada
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Duncan R, Richardson SCW. Endocytosis and intracellular trafficking as gateways for nanomedicine delivery: opportunities and challenges. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:2380-402. [PMID: 22844998 DOI: 10.1021/mp300293n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
More than 40 nanomedicines are already in routine clinical use with a growing number following in preclinical and clinical development. The therapeutic objectives are often enhanced disease-specific targeting (with simultaneously reduced access to sites of toxicity) and, especially in the case of macromolecular biotech drugs, improving access to intracellular pharmacological target receptors. Successful navigation of the endocytic pathways is usually a prerequisite to achieve these goals. Thus a comprehensive understanding of endocytosis and intracellular trafficking pathways in both the target and bystander normal cell type(s) is essential to enable optimal nanomedicine design. It is becoming evident that endocytic pathways can become disregulated in disease and this, together with the potential changes induced during exposure to the nanocarrier itself, has the potential to significantly impact nanomedicine performance in terms of safety and efficacy. Here we overview the endomembrane trafficking pathways, discuss the methods used to determine and quantitate the intracellular fate of nanomedicines, and review the current status of lysosomotropic and endosomotropic delivery. Based on the lessons learned during more than 3 decades of clinical development, the need to use endocytosis-relevant clinical biomarkers to better select those patients most likely to benefit from nanomedicine therapy is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Duncan
- School of Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK.
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