Balancing bond, nonbond, and gō-like terms in coarse grain simulations of conformational dynamics

The SARS-CoV-2 Spike variant D614G favors an open conformational state

The COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic underwent a rapid transition with the emergence of a dominant viral variant (from the "D-form" to the "G-form") that carried an amino acid substitution D614G in its "Spike" protein. The G-form is more infectious in vitro and is associated with increased viral loads in the upper airways. To gain insight into the molecular-level underpinnings of these characteristics, we used microsecond all-atom simulations. We show that changes in the protein energetics favor a higher population of infection-capable states in the G-form through release of asymmetry present in the D-form inter-protomer interactions. Thus, the increased infectivity of the G-form is likely due to a higher rate of profitable binding encounters with the host receptor. It is also predicted to be more neutralization sensitive owing to enhanced exposure of the receptor binding domain, a key target region for neutralizing antibodies. These results are critical for vaccine design.

Refining amino acid hydrophobicity for dynamics simulation of membrane proteins

Coarse-grained (CG) models have been successful in simulating the chemical properties of lipid bilayers, but accurate treatment of membrane proteins and lipid-protein molecular interactions remains a challenge. The CgProt force field, original developed with the multiscale coarse graining method, is assessed by comparing the potentials of mean force for sidechain insertion in a DOPC bilayer to results reported for atomistic molecular dynamics simulations. Reassignment of select CG sidechain sites from the apolar to polar site type was found to improve the attractive interfacial behavior of tyrosine, phenylalanine and asparagine as well as charged lysine and arginine residues. The solvation energy at membrane depths of 0, 1.3 and 1.7 nm correlates with experimental partition coefficients in aqueous mixtures of cyclohexane, octanol and POPC, respectively, for sidechain analogs and Wimley-White peptides. These experimental values serve as important anchor points in choosing between alternate CG models based on their observed permeation profiles, particularly for Arg, Lys and Gln residues where the all-atom OPLS solvation energy does not agree well with experiment. Available partitioning data was also used to reparameterize the representation of the peptide backbone, which needed to be made less attractive for the bilayer hydrophobic core region. The newly developed force field, CgProt 2.4, correctly predicts the global energy minimum in the potentials of mean force for insertion of the uncharged membrane-associated peptides LS3 and WALP23. CgProt will find application in studies of lipid-protein interactions and the conformational properties of diverse membrane protein systems.

Model parameters for simulation of physiological lipids

Coarse grain simulation of proteins in their physiological membrane environment can offer insight across timescales, but requires a comprehensive force field. Parameters are explored for multicomponent bilayers composed of unsaturated lipids DOPC and DOPE, mixed-chain saturation POPC and POPE, and anionic lipids found in bacteria: POPG and cardiolipin. A nonbond representation obtained from multiscale force matching is adapted for these lipids and combined with an improved bonding description of cholesterol. Equilibrating the area per lipid yields robust bilayer simulations and properties for common lipid mixtures with the exception of pure DOPE, which has a known tendency to form nonlamellar phase. The models maintain consistency with an existing lipid-protein interaction model, making the force field of general utility for studying membrane proteins in physiologically representative bilayers.

Modulation of frustration in folding by sequence permutation

Folding of globular proteins can be envisioned as the contraction of a random coil unfolded state toward the native state on an energy surface rough with local minima trapping frustrated species. These substructures impede productive folding and can serve as nucleation sites for aggregation reactions. However, little is known about the relationship between frustration and its underlying sequence determinants. Chemotaxis response regulator Y (CheY), a 129-amino acid bacterial protein, has been shown previously to populate an off-pathway kinetic trap in the microsecond time range. The frustration has been ascribed to premature docking of the N- and C-terminal subdomains or, alternatively, to the formation of an unproductive local-in-sequence cluster of branched aliphatic side chains, isoleucine, leucine, and valine (ILV). The roles of the subdomains and ILV clusters in frustration were tested by altering the sequence connectivity using circular permutations. Surprisingly, the stability and buried surface area of the intermediate could be increased or decreased depending on the location of the termini. Comparison with the results of small-angle X-ray-scattering experiments and simulations points to the accelerated formation of a more compact, on-pathway species for the more stable intermediate. The effect of chain connectivity in modulating the structures and stabilities of the early kinetic traps in CheY is better understood in terms of the ILV cluster model. However, the subdomain model captures the requirement for an intact N-terminal domain to access the native conformation. Chain entropy and aliphatic-rich sequences play crucial roles in biasing the early events leading to frustration in the folding of CheY.