Student Motivation: Current Theories, Constructs, and Interventions Within an Expectancy-Value Framework

The intraindividual dynamics of university students' motivation and emotions: The role of autonomy-supportive learning climates and learning activities

BACKGROUND

The motivation and emotions of students are context dependent. There are specific moments when students may find their coursework more or less motivating, resulting in stronger or milder emotional responses. Identifying factors directly controllable by teachers empowers them to effectively address challenging situations characterized by lower motivation and increased negative emotions.

AIMS

We aimed to investigate how learning activities and students' perception of teaching practices fostering autonomy relate to competence and value beliefs, and emotions in the context of course participation within higher education.

SAMPLE

Seventy-seven Taiwanese university students provided 762 learning reports associated with their course participation experiences.

METHODS

The experience sampling method (ESM) was used. Participants responded to ESM surveys on their phones for 14 days, reporting motivational beliefs, emotions and contextual characteristics of the course if they indicated active participation in a course upon receiving notifications from their phones.

RESULTS

A significant portion of the variation is attributed to situational fluctuation, suggesting that academic emotions and competence and value beliefs vary within students across measurements. An increase in students' perception of an autonomy-supportive learning climate correlates with higher competence beliefs, intrinsic value and positive emotions, coupled with reduced perceived costs and negative emotions. In contrast to lectures, engaging in independent hands-on work, participating in group collaborative projects or interactive discussions appear to inspire motivation or evoke stronger emotional responses in students.

CONCLUSIONS

Teachers' teaching practices and classroom learning activities play a pivotal role in shaping students' situational motivation and emotions.

Critical reflections on formal teaching observations

Formal teaching observations not only have an essential role in the visibility of teaching and learning but also allow for constructive, critical feedback for improvement. In both nursing and teaching, there is an emphasis on the need for efficient, regular reflective practice; this not to identify negative aspects but to transform professional practice. This article provides a personal insight into formal teaching observations, and themes arising from them of motivation, the teacher's voice, the use of abbreviations and acronyms and the use of exemplars, using a critical reflective approach.

Examining the Effects of the Utility Value Intervention on Learners' Emotions and Conceptual Understanding in Online Video-based Learning

In asynchronous online video-based learning, learners experience various affective states, which may make them disengaged and negatively influence learning outcomes. This study aimed to examine the effect of the utility value (UV) intervention to help learners emotionally and behaviorally engage in online learning. The UV intervention includes pre-learning writing activity and UV feedback messages to help learners perceive the relevance between the lecture topic and their lives. In particular, we examined the effects of the UV intervention on learners' negative emotions (i.e., confusion, frustration, and boredom) and conceptual understanding. For the experiment, 30 Korean adult learners were randomly assigned to the control, feedback-only, and writing-feedback groups. The control group did not receive any UV intervention strategy. The feedback-only group received UV feedback messages when detected to experience negative emotions during learning. The writing-feedback group performed a pre-learning activity to write about the usefulness of the lecture topic and then received UV feedback messages during learning. We used Ekman's Facial Action Coding System (FACS) to analyze learners' facial expressions associated with negative emotions. Pre-test and post-test were administered to measure conceptual understanding. The findings revealed that the UV feedback messages significantly reduced the occurrence of boredom while the UV writing did not significantly improve conceptual understanding. Overall, this study suggests that additional strategies and longer timing in UV interventions are necessary to intervene in online learners' confusion and frustration. Implications are discussed regarding the design of affective feedback mechanisms in online video-based learning environments.

Student Motivations and Barriers toward Online and In-Person Office Hours in STEM Courses

Office hours are one of the most common support mechanisms found in courses. Despite the prevalence of office hours in life sciences classes, there has been little investigation of how science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) students perceive office hours, particularly at non-research intensive universities or other institutions where a majority of students attend office hours. We surveyed more than 500 students, representing most life sciences majors at a comprehensive university, to investigate their motivations and barriers for attending office hours. We then compared instructors' perceptions to students' conceptions of office hours. We identified key themes in student and instructor comments using inductive, grounded theory, finding that students view a more limited range of benefits for office hours than instructors. Students likewise cited a larger number of barriers for attending than instructors perceived. In addition, while there were minimal differences in rates of office hours attendance and perception of office hours based on key demographic factors, we identify areas where students of different class years and gender perceive differences, suggesting areas of future research. Finally, we explored students' views of in-person versus online office hours, providing insight for instructors to better reach all students.

The implications of expectancy-value theory of motivation in language education

The successful performance of learners in any field of study, including a second/foreign language, is deemed as a pivotal concern in the educational system. Furthermore, the various learner variables, in particular, motivation should be taken into consideration, as a high level of motivation can yield many positive outcomes. Literature introduces the expectancy-value theory (EVT) as a recent approach to motivation, which has caught the attention of researchers. EVT as a basic and integrated paradigm helps the researchers and teachers to understand learners’ motivations and behaviors, and it has proved to be very helpful in understanding cognitive processes used by the learners, as well as their achievement. Based on this theory, successful performance, including the successful completion of the task and future aspirations, is mainly impacted by perceived expectancies regarding the outcome and value of tasks or domains. EVT can be viewed as a lens through which the aspects of motivation can be seen. This would pave the way for learners’ engagement and their achievement. EVT attaches great importance to learners’ reasonable expectations regarding the accomplishment of a goal. It also emphasizes figuring out the value of achieving the learning goal, which would enhance the motivation for L2 learning. The current review is aimed at examining how the expectancy-value motivational model impacts academic motivation, engagement, and participation in educational tasks, and learners’ academic performance.

University students' profiles of burnout symptoms amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany and their relation to concurrent study behavior and experiences

Burnout symptoms are prevalent among university students. This study examined students' understudied profiles of burnout symptoms and their relation to procrastination, dropout intentions, and study- and life satisfaction. We used cross-sectional data from two online-studies conducted in Germany in April 2020 amid the COVID-19 pandemic (N _study1 = 597, N _study2 = 857). Latent profile analyses indicated three profiles in both studies: (1) well-functioning, (2) moderately exhausted-inefficacious, and (3) burned-out. Most students belonged to Profiles 1 and 2 with low to moderate burnout symptoms. Students in Profile 3 reported the highest symptoms, most procrastination, strongest dropout intentions, and lowest study- and life satisfaction. The distinct profiles broaden knowledge about intra-individual differences in students' burnout experiences and underpin the need for tailored interventions.

The relationship betweens math anxiety and arithmetic reasoning: The mediating role of working memory and self-competence

The complex interplay between cognitive and emotional factors at the base of maths achievement started to be evaluated and quantified in the last few years. Only a few studies, anyway, examine at the same time, the role of working memory (visuospatial and verbal subsystem) and maths anxiety together with self-competence, on maths attainment. To investigate the specific link between these three factors, in a large developmental sample, we enrol 335 students from the 3rd, 5th, and 7th grades. In respect to emotional and motivational factors, data indicates a direct influence of maths anxiety on maths performance. Furthermore, the results highlight that maths anxiety differently impacts working memory subsystems. In fact, we observe a significant and indirect effect of MA, through the visuospatial system, on maths achievement. Our results provide further support to the hypothesis that maths anxiety is a special type of anxiety, most likely impacting the visuospatial rather than the verbal working memory subsystem. Data is discussed in terms of a possible mechanism underlying maths anxiety and visuospatial working memory at the base of this specificity, and in relation to the role of self-competence in this interplay.

Achievement Goal Theory Review: An Application to School Psychology

Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) is one of the most popular theoretical frameworks in motivation research. Despite its application to a variety of contexts, including, school, work, and sport, it has not yet been referenced in the field of school psychology. First, we review the theoretical underpinnings as told through the theory’s evolving models, explore its impacts on cognition, emotion, and behavior, and introduce a multiple goals perspective. Second, we outline the leading research supporting AGT, both in terms of structural and individual intervention studies. Third, we apply the principles of AGT to the primary tasks of school psychology professionals, including assessment, intervention, and consultation practices. The students we support can greatly benefit from gearing our approaches toward ones that foster self-improvement and interest.

Integrative and Theoretical Reviews of Achievement Motivation for School Psychologists: Introduction to the Special Issue

A theoretically grounded understanding of achievement motivation appears to be largely overlooked in both initial education programs and ongoing professional development of school psychologists. This is unfortunate because motivation constructs such as perceived control, value, and self-beliefs predict students’ academic performance in a way that complements the variance explained by intelligence tests. This empirical evidence is rooted in long-standing theorizing that motivation constructs hold an important role alongside cognitive constructs in understanding student learning. Moreover, because motivation constructs are viewed as malleable, they provide an untapped source of intervention for school psychologists in supporting students. For these reasons, this special issue presents five review articles that integrate discrete theories of achievement motivation to the practice of school psychology. Largely representing Canadian expertise, the articles describe the potential for the control-value theory of emotions, achievement goal theory, mindset theory, self-determination theory, and self-regulated learning in the work of school psychologists. The final commentary article explicates a whole-child framework to highlight the role motivation can hold alongside cognition and guide school psychologists to partner these constructs for the betterment of children.

The Costs of Online Learning: Examining Differences in Motivation and Academic Outcomes in Online and Face-to-Face Community College Developmental Mathematics Courses

Although online courses are becoming increasingly popular in higher education, evidence is inconclusive regarding whether online students are likely to be as academically successful and motivated as students in face-to-face courses. In this study, we documented online and face-to-face students' academic motivation and outcomes in community college mathematics courses, and whether differences might vary based on student characteristics (i.e., gender, underrepresented ethnic/racial minority status, first-generation college status, and adult learner status). Over 2,400 developmental mathematics students reported on their math motivation at the beginning (Week 1) and middle (Weeks 3, 5) of the semester. Findings indicated that online students received lower grades and were less likely to pass from their courses than face-to-face students, with online adult learners receiving particularly low final course grades and pass rates. In contrast, online and face-to-face students did not differ on incoming motivation, with subgroup analyses suggesting largely similar patterns of motivation across student groups. Together, findings suggest that online and face-to-face students may differ overall in academic outcomes but not in their motivation or differentially based on student characteristics. Small but significant differences on academic outcomes across modalities (Cohen's ds = 0.17-0.28) have implications for community college students' success in online learning environments, particularly for adult learners who are most likely to be faced with competing demands.

Self-Control and Academic Achievement

Self-control refers to the alignment of thoughts, feelings, and actions with enduringly valued goals in the face of momentarily more alluring alternatives. In this review, we examine the role of self-control in academic achievement. We begin by defining self-control and distinguishing it from related constructs. Next, we summarize evidence that nearly all students experience conflict between academic goals that they value in the long run and nonacademic goals that they find more gratifying in the moment. We then turn to longitudinal evidence relating self-control to academic attainment, course grades, and performance on standardized achievement tests. We use the process model of self-control to illustrate how impulses are generated and regulated, emphasizing opportunities for students to deliberately strengthen impulses that are congruent with, and dampen impulses that are incongruent with, academic goals. Finally, we conclude with future directions for both science and practice.

Assessing High School Students’ Cost Concerns About Pursuing STEM: “Is It Worth It?”

Women and ethnic minorities (e.g., Latinos) continue to be underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In an attempt to understand why these STEM minorities are underrepresented, we explored high school students’ cost perceptions about pursuing STEM in college. Past research has grouped cost into three dimensions: effort, loss of valued alternatives (LoVA), and emotional. Focus group interviews with Latino high school students confirmed the three cost dimensions, but there were some cultural sources of cost unique to our sample. Consequently, we modified and refined existing cost items to create a STEM-specific and culturally contextualized cost scale. We utilized our scale to examine how high school students at the intersection of gender, ethnicity, and math identification differ in cost perceptions. Results showed that high, compared with low, math-identified students had lower effort and LoVA costs. Among high math-identified students, we also found that STEM ethnic minorities had lower emotional cost than STEM ethnic majorities.