Epidemiology of Bladder Cancer. In: Petrovich Z, Baert L, Brady LW, editors. Carcinoma of the Bladder. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 1998. pp. 1-13. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-60258-0_1]

4-chloro-1,2-phenylenediamine induces apoptosis in Mardin-Darby canine kidney cells via activation of caspases

4-Chloro-1,2-phenylenediamine (4-Cl-o-PD) is a halogenated aromatic diamine that was used as a precursor for manufacturing permanent hair dyes. Despite its well-documented mutagenic and carcinogenic effects in a number of in vitro and in vivo models, its cytotoxicity and mode of action have not received similar attention. Here, we investigated the effect of 4-Cl-o-PD on Mardin-Darby canine kidney cells. It induced apoptosis and the evidence suggests its initiation by reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results of various assays used show a dose-dependent (i) decrease in cell viability, (ii) increase in cells at sub-G1 phase and the G0/G1 phase arrested in cell cycle, (iii) increase in intracellular ROS accompanied by depletion of glutathione, and (iv) that apoptotic cell death probably involves activation of both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.

Understanding the role of smoking in the aetiology of bladder cancer

Bladder cancer is common in the UK. Of all the aetiological factors associated with the development of the disease, cigarette smoking is the most important, in industrialized countries. It is estimated that 60% of all bladder cancers result from smoking. The management of bladder cancer is governed by specific guidelines. Superficial cancers are managed surgically with transurethral resection, while more aggressive tumours are managed with cystectomy (removal of the bladder). Additional treatment includes cytotoxic therapy with intravesical chemotherapy and immunotherapy agents. However, while treatments may be effective in reducing tumour recurrence, the side effects of treatments on the individual's quality of life can be devastating. This paper seeks to provide an overview of bladder cancer, namely how the disease presents and is subsequently treated. The role of smoking is discussed in relation to the development of bladder cancer. Also, whether health promotion and education are effective in increasing the individual's awareness of the dangers of smoking are explored.

Arylamine exposures and bladder cancer risk

Occupational exposure to arylamines in industrial settings was the first known cause of bladder cancer in humans. In the United States and many developed countries, these industrial dyes have been under strict government control for decades and are believed to contribute minimally to today's population burden of bladder cancer in the West. The two other recognized, and potentially substantial sources of human exposure to arylamines are cigarette smoking and use of hair dyes. This paper reviews the latest epidemiologic findings on the relationships between smoking, hair dye use and bladder cancer risk. Results support the notion that arylamines contained in cigarette smoke and permanent hair dyes are human carcinogens. Furthermore, women may experience higher bladder cancer risk than men from comparable arylamine exposure, possibly due in part to women's higher propensity for arylamine activation relative to men.

Use of permanent hair dyes and bladder-cancer risk

A population-based case-control study was conducted in Los Angeles, California, which involved 1,514 incident cases of bladder cancer and an equal number of age-, sex- and ethnicity-matched controls. Information on personal use of hair dyes was obtained from 897 cases and their matched controls. After adjustment for cigarette smoking, a major risk factor for bladder cancer, women who used permanent hair dyes at least once a month experienced a 2.1-fold risk of bladder cancer relative to non-users (p for trend = 0.04). Risk increased to 3.3 (95% CI = 1.3-8.4) among regular (at least monthly) users of 15 or more years. Occupational exposure to hair dyes was associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer in this study. Subjects who worked for 10 or more years as hairdressers or barbers experienced a 5-fold (95% CI = 1.3-19.2) increase in risk compared to individuals not exposed.