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Dong Y, Zhou X, Ding Y, Luo Y, Zhao H. Advances in tumor microenvironment: Applications and challenges of 3D bioprinting. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2024; 730:150339. [PMID: 39032359 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) assumes a pivotal role in the treatment of oncological diseases, given its intricate interplay of diverse cellular components and extracellular matrices. This dynamic ecosystem poses a serious challenge to traditional research methods in many ways, such as high research costs, inefficient translation, poor reproducibility, and low modeling success rates. These challenges require the search for more suitable research methods to accurately model the TME, and the emergence of 3D bioprinting technology is transformative and an important complement to these traditional methods to precisely control the distribution of cells, biomolecules, and matrix scaffolds within the TME. Leveraging digital design, the technology enables personalized studies with high precision, providing essential experimental flexibility. Serving as a critical bridge between in vitro and in vivo studies, 3D bioprinting facilitates the realistic 3D culturing of cancer cells. This comprehensive article delves into cutting-edge developments in 3D bioprinting, encompassing diverse methodologies, biomaterial choices, and various 3D tumor models. Exploration of current challenges, including limited biomaterial options, printing accuracy constraints, low reproducibility, and ethical considerations, contributes to a nuanced understanding. Despite these challenges, the technology holds immense potential for simulating tumor tissues, propelling personalized medicine, and constructing high-resolution organ models, marking a transformative trajectory in oncological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Dong
- The First School of Climical Medicine of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Xue Zhou
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power & Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
| | - Yunyi Ding
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, School, Hangzhou, 310009, China.
| | - Yichen Luo
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power & Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
| | - Hong Zhao
- The First School of Climical Medicine of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, 310053, China; Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, 310060, China.
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Kovács KD, Szittner Z, Magyaródi B, Péter B, Szabó B, Vörös A, Kanyó N, Székács I, Horvath R. Optical sensor reveals the hidden influence of cell dissociation on adhesion measurements. Sci Rep 2024; 14:11719. [PMID: 38778185 PMCID: PMC11111754 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-61485-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Cell adhesion experiments are important in tissue engineering and for testing new biologically active surfaces, prostheses, and medical devices. Additionally, the initial state of adhesion (referred to as nascent adhesion) plays a key role and is currently being intensively researched. A critical step in handling all adherent cell types is their dissociation from their substrates for further processing. Various cell dissociation methods and reagents are used in most tissue culture laboratories (here, cell dissociation from the culture surface, cell harvesting, and cell detachment are used interchangeably). Typically, the dissociated cells are re-adhered for specific measurements or applications. However, the impact of the choice of dissociation method on cell adhesion in subsequent measurements, especially when comparing the adhesivity of various surfaces, is not well clarified. In this study, we demonstrate that the application of a label-free optical sensor can precisely quantify the effect of cell dissociation methods on cell adhesivity, both at the single-cell and population levels. The optical measurements allow for high-resolution monitoring of cellular adhesion without interfering with the physiological state of the cells. We found that the choice of reagent significantly alters cell adhesion on various surfaces. Our results clearly demonstrate that biological conclusions about cellular adhesion when comparing various surfaces are highly dependent on the employed dissociation method. Neglecting the choice of cellular dissociation can lead to misleading conclusions when evaluating cell adhesion data from various sources and comparing the adhesivity of two different surfaces (i.e., determining which surface is more or less adhesive).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinga Dóra Kovács
- Nanobiosensorics Laboratory, MFA, Centre for Energy Research, HUN-REN, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Szittner
- Nanobiosensorics Laboratory, MFA, Centre for Energy Research, HUN-REN, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Beatrix Magyaródi
- Nanobiosensorics Laboratory, MFA, Centre for Energy Research, HUN-REN, Budapest, Hungary
- Chemical Engineering and Material Sciences Doctoral School, University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Beatrix Péter
- Nanobiosensorics Laboratory, MFA, Centre for Energy Research, HUN-REN, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Bálint Szabó
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös University, Budapest, Hungary
- Cellsorter Kft., Budapest, Hungary
| | - Alexa Vörös
- Nanobiosensorics Laboratory, MFA, Centre for Energy Research, HUN-REN, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Nicolett Kanyó
- Nanobiosensorics Laboratory, MFA, Centre for Energy Research, HUN-REN, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Inna Székács
- Nanobiosensorics Laboratory, MFA, Centre for Energy Research, HUN-REN, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Robert Horvath
- Nanobiosensorics Laboratory, MFA, Centre for Energy Research, HUN-REN, Budapest, Hungary.
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Chen W, Nie M, Gan J, Xia N, Wang D, Sun L. Tailoring cell sheets for biomedical applications. SMART MEDICINE 2024; 3:e20230038. [PMID: 39188516 PMCID: PMC11235941 DOI: 10.1002/smmd.20230038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024]
Abstract
Cell sheet technology has emerged as a novel scaffold-free approach for cell-based therapies in regenerative medicine. Techniques for harvesting cell sheets are essential to preserve the integrity of living cell sheets. This review provides an overview of fundamental technologies to fabricate cell sheets and recent advances in cell sheet-based tissue engineering. In addition to the commonly used temperature-responsive systems, we introduce alternative approaches, such as ROS-induced, magnetic-controlled, and light-induced cell sheet technologies. Moreover, we discuss the modification of the cell sheet to improve its function, including stacking, genetic modification, and vascularization. With the significant advances in cell sheet technology, cell sheets have been widely applied in various tissues and organs, including but not limited to the lung, cornea, cartilage, periodontium, heart, and liver. This review further describes both the preclinical and clinical applications of cell sheets. We believe that the progress in cell sheet technology would further propel its biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Chen
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalMedical SchoolNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Min Nie
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalMedical SchoolNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Jingjing Gan
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalMedical SchoolNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Nan Xia
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalMedical SchoolNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Dandan Wang
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalMedical SchoolNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Lingyun Sun
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalMedical SchoolNanjing UniversityNanjingChina
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiChina
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Anthon SG, Valente KP. Vascularization Strategies in 3D Cell Culture Models: From Scaffold-Free Models to 3D Bioprinting. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:14582. [PMID: 36498908 PMCID: PMC9737506 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The discrepancies between the findings in preclinical studies, and in vivo testing and clinical trials have resulted in the gradual decline in drug approval rates over the past decades. Conventional in vitro drug screening platforms employ two-dimensional (2D) cell culture models, which demonstrate inaccurate drug responses by failing to capture the three-dimensional (3D) tissue microenvironment in vivo. Recent advancements in the field of tissue engineering have made possible the creation of 3D cell culture systems that can accurately recapitulate the cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions, as well as replicate the intricate microarchitectures observed in native tissues. However, the lack of a perfusion system in 3D cell cultures hinders the establishment of the models as potential drug screening platforms. Over the years, multiple techniques have successfully demonstrated vascularization in 3D cell cultures, simulating in vivo-like drug interactions, proposing the use of 3D systems as drug screening platforms to eliminate the deviations between preclinical and in vivo testing. In this review, the basic principles of 3D cell culture systems are briefly introduced, and current research demonstrating the development of vascularization in 3D cell cultures is discussed, with a particular focus on the potential of these models as the future of drug screening platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamapto Guha Anthon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
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Lizana-Vasquez GD, Arrieta-Viana LF, Mendez-Vega J, Acevedo A, Torres-Lugo M. Synthetic Thermo-Responsive Terpolymers as Tunable Scaffolds for Cell Culture Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14204379. [PMID: 36297960 PMCID: PMC9611013 DOI: 10.3390/polym14204379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of tailored synthetic hydrogels for in vitro tissue culture and biomanufacturing provides the advantage of mimicking the cell microenvironment without issues of batch-to-batch variability. To that end, this work focused on the design, characterization, and preliminary evaluation of thermo-responsive, transparent synthetic terpolymers based on N-isopropylacrylamide, vinylphenylboronic acid, and polyethylene glycol for cell manufacturing and in vitro culture applications. Polymer physical properties were characterized by FT-IR, 1H-NMR, DLS, rheology, and thermal-gravimetric analysis. Tested combinations provided polymers with a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) between 30 and 45 °C. Terpolymer elastic/shear modulus varied between 0.3 and 19.1 kPa at 37 °C. Cellular characterization indicated low cell cytotoxicity on NIH-3T3. Experiments with the ovarian cancer model SKOV-3 and Jurkat T cells showed the terpolymers’ capacity for cell encapsulation without interfering with staining or imaging protocols. In addition, cell growth and high levels of pluripotency demonstrated the capability of terpolymer to culture iPSCs. Characterization results confirmed a promising use of terpolymers as a tunable scaffold for cell culture applications.
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Wang Y, Zhao Z, Liu S, Luo W, Wang G, Zhu Z, Ma Q, Liu Y, Wang L, Lu S, Zhang Y, Qian J, Zhang Y. Application of vancomycin-impregnated calcium sulfate hemihydrate/nanohydroxyapatite/carboxymethyl chitosan injectable hydrogels combined with BMSC sheets for the treatment of infected bone defects in a rabbit model. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2022; 23:557. [PMID: 35681160 PMCID: PMC9185966 DOI: 10.1186/s12891-022-05499-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The choice of bone substitutes for the treatment of infected bone defects (IBDs) has attracted the attention of surgeons for years. However, single-stage bioabsorbable materials that are used as carriers for antibiotic release, as well as scaffolds for BMSC sheets, need further exploration. Our study was designed to investigate the effect of vancomycin-loaded calcium sulfate hemihydrate/nanohydroxyapatite/carboxymethyl chitosan (CSH/n-HA/CMCS) hydrogels combined with BMSC sheets as bone substitutes for the treatment of IBDs. METHODS BMSCs were harvested and cultured into cell sheets. After the successful establishment of an animal model with chronic osteomyelitis, 48 New Zealand white rabbits were randomly divided into 4 groups. Animals in Group A were treated with thorough debridement as a control. Group B was treated with BMSC sheets. CSH/n-HA/CMCS hydrogels were implanted in the treatment of Group C, and Group D was treated with CSH/n-HA/CMCS+BMSC sheets. Gross observation and micro-CT 3D reconstruction were performed to assess the osteogenic and infection elimination abilities of the treatment materials. Histological staining (haematoxylin and eosin and Van Gieson) was used to observe inflammatory cell infiltration and the formation of collagen fibres at 4, 8, and 12 weeks after implantation. RESULTS The bone defects of the control group were not repaired at 12 weeks, as chronic osteomyelitis was still observed. HE staining showed a large amount of inflammatory cell infiltration around the tissue, and VG staining showed no new collagen fibres formation. In the BMSC sheet group, although new bone formation was observed by gross observation and micro-CT scanning, infection was not effectively controlled due to unfilled cavities. Some neutrophils and only a small amount of collagen fibres could be observed. Both the hydrogel and hydrogel/BMSCs groups achieved satisfactory repair effects and infection control. Micro-CT 3D reconstruction at 4 weeks showed that the hydrogel/BMSC sheet group had higher reconstruction efficiency and better bone modelling with normal morphology. HE staining showed little aggregation of inflammatory cells, and VG staining showed a large number of new collagen fibres. CONCLUSIONS Our preliminary results suggested that compared to a single material, the novel antibiotic-impregnated hydrogels acted as superior scaffolds for BMSC sheets and excellent antibiotic vectors against infection, which provided a basis for applying tissue engineering technology to the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanjun Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zihou Zhao
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shiyu Liu
- Institute of Oral Tissue Engineering, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wen Luo
- Department of Ultrasound, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, Shaanxi, China
| | - Guoliang Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhenfeng Zhu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qiong Ma
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yunyan Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Linhu Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shuaikun Lu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Jixian Qian
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Yunfei Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Second affiliated hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710038, Shaanxi, China.
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Wu H, He Z, Li X, Xu X, Zhong W, Bu J, Huang G. Efficient and Consistent Orthotopic Osteosarcoma Model by Cell Sheet Transplantation in the Nude Mice for Drug Testing. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:690409. [PMID: 34631675 PMCID: PMC8498338 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.690409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteosarcoma is a big challenge on clinical treatment. The breakthrough associated with osteosarcoma in basic research and translational research depends on the reliable establishment of an animal model, whereby mice are frequently used. However, a traditional animal modeling technique like tumor cell suspension injection causes batch dynamics and large mice consumption. Here, we suggested a novel approach in establishing an orthotropic osteosarcoma model in nude mice rapidly by cell sheet culture and transplantation. Our findings demonstrated that the 143b osteosarcoma cell sheet orthotopically implanted into the nude mice could form a visible mass within 10 days, whereas it took over 15 days for a similar amount of cell suspension injection to form a visible tumor mass. Living animal imaging results showed that a tumor formation rate was 100% in the cell sheet implantation group, while it was 67% in the cell suspension injection group. The formed tumor masses were highly consistent in both growth rate and tumor size. Massive bone destruction and soft tissue mass formation were observed from the micro CT analysis, suggesting the presence of osteosarcoma. The histopathological analysis demonstrated that the orthotropic osteosarcoma model mimicked the tumor bone growth, bone destruction, and the lung metastasis. These findings imply that such a cell sheet technology could be an appropriate approach to rapidly establish a sustainable orthotropic osteosarcoma model for tumor research and reduce mice consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Wu
- Department of Orthopedics, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhengxi He
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Cancer Research Institute, Basic School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xianan Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xuezheng Xu
- Department of Orthopedics, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wu Zhong
- Department of Orthopedics, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jie Bu
- Department of Orthopedics, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Gang Huang
- Department of Orthopedics, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
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Akiyama Y. Synthesis of Temperature-Responsive Polymers Containing Piperidine Carboxamide and N,N-diethylcarbamoly Piperidine Moiety via RAFT Polymerization. Macromol Rapid Commun 2021; 42:e2100208. [PMID: 34145666 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202100208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In this study, poly(N-acryloyl-nipecotamide) (PNANAm), poly(N-acryloyl-isonipecotamide) (PNAiNAm), and poly(N-acryloyl-N,N-diethylnipecotamide) (PNADNAm) are synthesized as novel temperature-responsive polymers using reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization. Aqueous solutions of these three polymers are examined via temperature-dependent optical transmittance measurements. The PNANAm sample with a hydrophilic terminal group shows an upper critical solution temperature (UCST) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) when its molecular weight (Mn ) is 7600 or higher, whereas PNANAm (Mn < 7600) is soluble. The UCST is influenced by molecular weight and the polymer concentration. In contrast, PNANAm sample with nonionic terminal group shows UCST, when Mn is below 7600, suggesting that the terminal nonionic group possibly increases UCST of PNANAm. The urea addition experiment suggests that the driving force for expression of UCST of PNANAm is the formation of inter-and intramolecular hydrogen bonds among the polymer chains. PNAiNAm is soluble in PBS but exhibits an UCST in an appropriate concentration of ammonium sulfate. In contrast, PNADNAm exhibits a lower critical solution temperature. Comparing the chemical structure of these polymers and their phase transition behaviors suggests that the carboxamide group position in the piperidine ring could determine the UCST expression. These results could help design temperature-responsive polymers with a desired the cloud point temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshikatsu Akiyama
- Institute of Advanced Biomedical Engineering and Science, Tokyo Women's Medical University, TWIns, 8-1 Kawadacho, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
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Zhang Y. Manufacture of complex heart tissues: technological advancements and future directions. AIMS BIOENGINEERING 2021. [DOI: 10.3934/bioeng.2021008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Ciccocioppo R, Cantore A, Chaimov D, Orlando G. Regenerative medicine: the red planet for clinicians. Intern Emerg Med 2019; 14:911-921. [PMID: 31203564 DOI: 10.1007/s11739-019-02126-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Regenerative medicine represents the forefront of health sciences and holds promises for the treatment and, possibly, the cure of a number of challenging conditions. It relies on the use of stem cells, tissue engineering, and gene therapy alone or in different combinations. The goal is to deliver cells, tissues, or organs to repair, regenerate, or replace the damaged ones. Among stem-cell populations, both haematopoietic and mesenchymal stem cells have been employed in the treatment of refractory chronic inflammatory diseases with promising results. However, only mesenchymal stem cells seem advantageous as both systemic and local injections may be performed without the need for immune ablation. Recently, also induced pluripotent stem cells have been exploited for therapeutic purposes given their tremendous potential to be an unlimited source of any tissue-specific cells. Moreover, through the development of technologies that make organ fabrication possible using cells and supporting scaffolding materials, regenerative medicine promises to enable organ-on-demand, whereby patients will receive organs in a timely fashion without the risk of rejection. Finally, gene therapy is emerging as a successful strategy not only in monogenic diseases, but also in multifactorial conditions. Several of these approaches have recently received approval for commercialization, thus opening a new therapeutic era. This is why both General Practitioners and Internists should be aware of these great advancements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachele Ciccocioppo
- Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Medicine, AOUI Policlinico G.B. Rossi and University of Verona, Piazzale L.A. Scuro 10, 37134, Verona, Italy.
| | - Alessio Cantore
- San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- Vita Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
| | - Deborah Chaimov
- Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Giuseppe Orlando
- Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
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