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Yagishita H, Sasaki T. Integrating physiological and transcriptomic analyses at the single-neuron level. Neurosci Res 2024:S0168-0102(24)00065-8. [PMID: 38821412 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2024.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2024] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Neurons generate various spike patterns to execute different functions. Understanding how these physiological neuronal spike patterns are related to their molecular characteristics is a long-standing issue in neuroscience. Herein, we review the results of recent studies that have addressed this issue by integrating physiological and transcriptomic techniques. A sequence of experiments, including in vivo recording and/or labeling, brain tissue slicing, cell collection, and transcriptomic analysis, have identified the gene expression profiles of brain neurons at the single-cell level, with activity patterns recorded in living animals. Although these techniques are still in the early stages, this methodological idea is principally applicable to various brain regions and neuronal activity patterns. Accumulating evidence will contribute to a deeper understanding of neuronal characteristics by integrating insights from molecules to cells, circuits, and behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruya Yagishita
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aramaki-Aoba, Aoba-Ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
| | - Takuya Sasaki
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aramaki-Aoba, Aoba-Ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; Department of Neuropharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, 4-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-Ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
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2
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Ganapathy S, Meng X, Mossel D, Jagt M, Brinks D. Expanding the family of genetically encoded voltage indicators with a candidate Heliorhodopsin exhibiting near-infrared fluorescence. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104771. [PMID: 37127067 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs), particularly those based on microbial rhodopsins, are gaining traction in neuroscience as fluorescent sensors for imaging voltage dynamics with high-spatiotemporal precision. Here we establish a novel GEVI candidate based on the recently discovered subfamily of the microbial rhodopsin clade, termed heliorhodopsins. We discovered that upon excitation at 530-560nm, wild type heliorhodopsin exhibits near infra-red fluorescence which is sensitive to membrane voltage. We characterized the fluorescence brightness, photostability, voltage sensitivity and kinetics of wild type heliorhodopsin in HEK293T cells and further examined the impact of mutating key residues near the retinal chromophore. The S237A mutation significantly improved the fluorescence response of heliorhodopsin by 76% providing a highly promising starting point for further protein evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srividya Ganapathy
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands; Department of Pediatrics & Cellular and Molecular Medicine, UCSD School of Medicine, San Diego, USA
| | - Xin Meng
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Delizzia Mossel
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Mels Jagt
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Daan Brinks
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands; Department of Molecular Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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3
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Silic MR, Zhang G. Bioelectricity in Developmental Patterning and Size Control: Evidence and Genetically Encoded Tools in the Zebrafish Model. Cells 2023; 12:cells12081148. [PMID: 37190057 DOI: 10.3390/cells12081148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Developmental patterning is essential for regulating cellular events such as axial patterning, segmentation, tissue formation, and organ size determination during embryogenesis. Understanding the patterning mechanisms remains a central challenge and fundamental interest in developmental biology. Ion-channel-regulated bioelectric signals have emerged as a player of the patterning mechanism, which may interact with morphogens. Evidence from multiple model organisms reveals the roles of bioelectricity in embryonic development, regeneration, and cancers. The Zebrafish model is the second most used vertebrate model, next to the mouse model. The zebrafish model has great potential for elucidating the functions of bioelectricity due to many advantages such as external development, transparent early embryogenesis, and tractable genetics. Here, we review genetic evidence from zebrafish mutants with fin-size and pigment changes related to ion channels and bioelectricity. In addition, we review the cell membrane voltage reporting and chemogenetic tools that have already been used or have great potential to be implemented in zebrafish models. Finally, new perspectives and opportunities for bioelectricity research with zebrafish are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin R Silic
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - GuangJun Zhang
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Institute for Inflammation, Immunology and Infectious Diseases (PI4D), Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, 625 Harrison Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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4
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Alich TC, Röderer P, Szalontai B, Golcuk K, Tariq S, Peitz M, Brüstle O, Mody I. Bringing to light the physiological and pathological firing patterns of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons using optical recordings. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 16:1039957. [PMID: 36733665 PMCID: PMC9887032 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.1039957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) are a promising approach to study neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases. Most methods to record the activity of these cells have major drawbacks as they are invasive or they do not allow single cell resolution. Genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) open the path to high throughput visualization of undisturbed neuronal activity. However, conventional GEVIs perturb membrane integrity through inserting multiple copies of transmembrane domains into the plasma membrane. To circumvent large add-ons to the plasma membrane, we used a minimally invasive novel hybrid dark quencher GEVI to record the physiological and pathological firing patterns of hiPSCs-derived sensory neurons from patients with inherited erythromelalgia, a chronic pain condition associated with recurrent attacks of redness and swelling in the distal extremities. We observed considerable differences in action potential firing patterns between patient and control neurons that were previously overlooked with other recording methods. Our system also performed well in hiPSC-derived forebrain neurons where it detected spontaneous synchronous bursting behavior, thus opening the path to future applications in other cell types and disease models including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, and schizophrenia, conditions associated with disturbances of neuronal activity and synchrony.
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Affiliation(s)
- Therese C. Alich
- Institute of Experimental Epileptology and Cognition Research, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Pascal Röderer
- Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany,Cellomics Unit, LIFE & BRAIN GmbH, Bonn, Germany
| | - Balint Szalontai
- Institute of Experimental Epileptology and Cognition Research, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Kurt Golcuk
- Institute of Experimental Epileptology and Cognition Research, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Shahan Tariq
- Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Michael Peitz
- Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany,Cell Programming Core Facility, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Oliver Brüstle
- Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Istvan Mody
- Institute of Experimental Epileptology and Cognition Research, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany,Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States,*Correspondence: Istvan Mody,
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5
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Swanson JL, Chin PS, Romero JM, Srivastava S, Ortiz-Guzman J, Hunt PJ, Arenkiel BR. Advancements in the Quest to Map, Monitor, and Manipulate Neural Circuitry. Front Neural Circuits 2022; 16:886302. [PMID: 35719420 PMCID: PMC9204427 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.886302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural circuits and the cells that comprise them represent the functional units of the brain. Circuits relay and process sensory information, maintain homeostasis, drive behaviors, and facilitate cognitive functions such as learning and memory. Creating a functionally-precise map of the mammalian brain requires anatomically tracing neural circuits, monitoring their activity patterns, and manipulating their activity to infer function. Advancements in cell-type-specific genetic tools allow interrogation of neural circuits with increased precision. This review provides a broad overview of recombination-based and activity-driven genetic targeting approaches, contemporary viral tracing strategies, electrophysiological recording methods, newly developed calcium, and voltage indicators, and neurotransmitter/neuropeptide biosensors currently being used to investigate circuit architecture and function. Finally, it discusses methods for acute or chronic manipulation of neural activity, including genetically-targeted cellular ablation, optogenetics, chemogenetics, and over-expression of ion channels. With this ever-evolving genetic toolbox, scientists are continuing to probe neural circuits with increasing resolution, elucidating the structure and function of the incredibly complex mammalian brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L. Swanson
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Pey-Shyuan Chin
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Juan M. Romero
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Snigdha Srivastava
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Joshua Ortiz-Guzman
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Patrick J. Hunt
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Benjamin R. Arenkiel
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
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Fiala T, Mosharov EV, Wang J, Mendieta AM, Choi SJ, Fialova E, Hwu C, Sulzer D, Sames D. Chemical Targeting of Rhodol Voltage-Sensitive Dyes to Dopaminergic Neurons. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:1251-1262. [PMID: 35400149 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Optical imaging of changes in the membrane potential of living cells can be achieved by means of fluorescent voltage-sensitive dyes (VSDs). A particularly challenging task is to efficiently deliver these highly lipophilic probes to specific neuronal subpopulations in brain tissue. We have tackled this task by designing a solubilizing, hydrophilic polymer platform that carries a high-affinity ligand for a membrane protein marker of interest and a fluorescent VSD. Here, we disclose an improved design of polymer-supported probes for chemical, nongenetic targeting of voltage sensors to axons natively expressing the dopamine transporter in ex vivo mouse brain tissue. We first show that for negatively charged rhodol VSDs functioning on the photoinduced electron transfer principle, poly(ethylene glycol) as a carrier enables targeting with higher selectivity than the polysaccharide dextran in HEK cell culture. In the same experimental setting, we also demonstrate that incorporation of an azetidine ring into the rhodol chromophore substantially increases the brightness and voltage sensitivity of the respective VSD. We show that the superior properties of the optimized sensor are transferable to recording of electrically evoked activity from dopaminergic axons in mouse striatal slices after averaging of multiple trials. Finally, we suggest the next milestones for the field to achieve single-scan recordings with nongenetically targeted VSDs in native brain tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Fiala
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Eugene V. Mosharov
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Jihang Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Adriana M. Mendieta
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Se Joon Choi
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Eva Fialova
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Christopher Hwu
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - David Sulzer
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, United States
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Dalibor Sames
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
- NeuroTechnology Center at Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
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7
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Tognolina M, Monteverdi A, D’Angelo E. Discovering Microcircuit Secrets With Multi-Spot Imaging and Electrophysiological Recordings: The Example of Cerebellar Network Dynamics. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:805670. [PMID: 35370553 PMCID: PMC8971197 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.805670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebellar cortex microcircuit is characterized by a highly ordered neuronal architecture having a relatively simple and stereotyped connectivity pattern. For a long time, this structural simplicity has incorrectly led to the idea that anatomical considerations would be sufficient to understand the dynamics of the underlying circuitry. However, recent experimental evidence indicates that cerebellar operations are much more complex than solely predicted by anatomy, due to the crucial role played by neuronal and synaptic properties. To be able to explore neuronal and microcircuit dynamics, advanced imaging, electrophysiological techniques and computational models have been combined, allowing us to investigate neuronal ensembles activity and to connect microscale to mesoscale phenomena. Here, we review what is known about cerebellar network organization, neural dynamics and synaptic plasticity and point out what is still missing and would require experimental assessments. We consider the available experimental techniques that allow a comprehensive assessment of circuit dynamics, including voltage and calcium imaging and extracellular electrophysiological recordings with multi-electrode arrays (MEAs). These techniques are proving essential to investigate the spatiotemporal pattern of activity and plasticity in the cerebellar network, providing new clues on how circuit dynamics contribute to motor control and higher cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marialuisa Tognolina
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
- *Correspondence: Marialuisa Tognolina,
| | - Anita Monteverdi
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
- IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Brain Connectivity Center, Pavia, Italy
| | - Egidio D’Angelo
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
- IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Brain Connectivity Center, Pavia, Italy
- Egidio D’Angelo,
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8
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Adelfio M, Bonzanni M, Levin M, Kaplan DL. Impact of Membrane Voltage on Formation and Stability of Human Renal Proximal Tubules in Vitro. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8:1239-1246. [PMID: 35157435 PMCID: PMC9906498 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c01163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
More than 15% of adults in the United States suffer from some form of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Current strategies for CKD consist of dialysis or kidney transplant, which, however, can take several years. In this light, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine approaches are the key to improving people's living conditions by advancing previous tissue engineering approaches and seeking new targets as intervention methods for kidney repair or replacement. The membrane voltage (Vm) dynamics of a cell have been associated with cell migration, cell cycle progression, differentiation, and pattern formation. Furthermore, bioelectrical stimuli have been used as a means in the treatment of diseases and wound healing. Here, we investigated the role of Vm as a novel target to guide and manipulate in vitro renal tissue models. Human-immortalized renal proximal tubule epithelial cells (RPTECs-TERT1) were cultured on Matrigel to support the formation of 3D proximal tubular-like structures with the incorporation of a voltage-sensitive dye indicator─bis-(1,3-dibutylbarbituric acid)timethine oxonol (DiBAC). The results demonstrated a correlation between the depolarization and the reorganization of human renal proximal tubule cells, indicating Vm as a candidate variable to control these events. Accordingly, Vm was pharmacologically manipulated using glibenclamide and pinacidil, KATP channel modulators, and proximal tubule formation and tubule stability over 21 days were assessed. Chronic manipulation of KATP channels induced changes in the tubular network topology without affecting lumen formation. Thus, a relationship was found between the preluminal tubulogenesis phase and KATP channels. This relationship may provide future options as a control point during kidney tissue development, treatment, and regeneration goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miryam Adelfio
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford 02155, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Mattia Bonzanni
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford 02155, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Michael Levin
- Biology Department, and Allen Discovery Center at Tufts University, Tufts University, 200 Boston Avenue, Medford 02155, Massachusetts, United States
| | - David L Kaplan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford 02155, Massachusetts, United States
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Stožer A, Šterk M, Paradiž Leitgeb E, Markovič R, Skelin Klemen M, Ellis CE, Križančić Bombek L, Dolenšek J, MacDonald PE, Gosak M. From Isles of Königsberg to Islets of Langerhans: Examining the Function of the Endocrine Pancreas Through Network Science. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:922640. [PMID: 35784543 PMCID: PMC9240343 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.922640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Islets of Langerhans are multicellular microorgans located in the pancreas that play a central role in whole-body energy homeostasis. Through secretion of insulin and other hormones they regulate postprandial storage and interprandial usage of energy-rich nutrients. In these clusters of hormone-secreting endocrine cells, intricate cell-cell communication is essential for proper function. Electrical coupling between the insulin-secreting beta cells through gap junctions composed of connexin36 is particularly important, as it provides the required, most important, basis for coordinated responses of the beta cell population. The increasing evidence that gap-junctional communication and its modulation are vital to well-regulated secretion of insulin has stimulated immense interest in how subpopulations of heterogeneous beta cells are functionally arranged throughout the islets and how they mediate intercellular signals. In the last decade, several novel techniques have been proposed to assess cooperation between cells in islets, including the prosperous combination of multicellular imaging and network science. In the present contribution, we review recent advances related to the application of complex network approaches to uncover the functional connectivity patterns among cells within the islets. We first provide an accessible introduction to the basic principles of network theory, enumerating the measures characterizing the intercellular interactions and quantifying the functional integration and segregation of a multicellular system. Then we describe methodological approaches to construct functional beta cell networks, point out possible pitfalls, and specify the functional implications of beta cell network examinations. We continue by highlighting the recent findings obtained through advanced multicellular imaging techniques supported by network-based analyses, giving special emphasis to the current developments in both mouse and human islets, as well as outlining challenges offered by the multilayer network formalism in exploring the collective activity of islet cell populations. Finally, we emphasize that the combination of these imaging techniques and network-based analyses does not only represent an innovative concept that can be used to describe and interpret the physiology of islets, but also provides fertile ground for delineating normal from pathological function and for quantifying the changes in islet communication networks associated with the development of diabetes mellitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andraž Stožer
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Marko Šterk
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Eva Paradiž Leitgeb
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Rene Markovič
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- Institute of Mathematics and Physics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Maša Skelin Klemen
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Cara E. Ellis
- Department of Pharmacology and Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | | | - Jurij Dolenšek
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Patrick E. MacDonald
- Department of Pharmacology and Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Marko Gosak
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- *Correspondence: Marko Gosak,
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