Studies on the protolytic reactions coupled with water cleavage in photosystem II membrane fragments from spinach

ATR-FTIR Spectroelectrochemical Study on the Mechanism of the pH Dependence of the Redox Potential of the Non-Heme Iron in Photosystem II

The non-heme iron that bridges the two plastoquinone electron acceptors, Q_A and Q_B, in photosystem II (PSII) is known to have a redox potential (E_m) of ∼+400 mV with a pH dependence of ∼-60 mV/pH. However, titratable amino acid residues that are coupled to the redox reaction of the non-heme ion and responsible for its pH dependence remain unidentified. In this study, to clarify the mechanism of the pH dependent change of E_m(Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺), we investigated the protonation structures of amino acid residues correlated with the pH-induced E_m(Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺) changes using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroelectrochemistry combined with the attenuated total reflection (ATR) and light-induced difference techniques. Flash-induced Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ ATR-FTIR difference spectra obtained at different electrode potentials in the pH range of 5.0-8.5 showed a linear pH dependence of E_m(Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺) with a slope of -52 mV/pH close to the theoretical value at 10 °C, the measurement temperature. The spectral features revealed that D1-H215, a ligand to the non-heme iron interacting with Q_B, was deprotonated to an imidazolate anion at higher pH with a pK_a of ∼5.6 in the Fe³⁺ state, while carboxylate groups from Glu/Asp residues present on the stromal side of PSII were protonated at lower pH with a pK_a of ∼5.7 in the Fe²⁺ state. It is thus concluded that the deprotonation/protonation reactions of D1-H215 and Glu/Asp residues located near the non-heme iron cause the pH-dependent changes in E_m(Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺) at higher and lower pH regions, respectively, realizing a linear pH dependence over a wide pH range.

Probing the turnover efficiency of photosystem II membrane fragments with different electron acceptors

In this study we employ isotope ratio membrane-inlet mass spectrometry to probe the turnover efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) membrane fragments isolated from spinach at flash frequencies between 1Hz and 50Hz in the presence of the commonly used exogenous electron acceptors potassium ferricyanide(III) (FeCy), 2,5-dichloro-p-benzoquinone (DCBQ), and 2-phenyl-p-benzoquinone (PPBQ). The data obtained clearly indicate that among the tested acceptors PPBQ is the best at high flash frequencies. If present at high enough concentration, the PSII turnover efficiency is unaffected by flash frequency of up to 30Hz, and at 40Hz and 50Hz only a slight decrease by about 5-7% is observed. In contrast, drastic reductions of the O(2) yields by about 40% and 65% were found at 50Hz for DCBQ and FeCy, respectively. Comparison with literature data reveals that PPBQ accepts electrons from Q(A)(-) in PSII membrane fragments with similar efficiency as plastoquinone in intact cells. Our data also confirm that at high flashing rates O(2) evolution is limited by the reactions on the electron-acceptor side of PSII. The relevance of these data to the evolutionary development of the water-splitting complex in PSII and with regard to the potential of artificial water-splitting catalysts is discussed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosynthesis Research for Sustainability: from Natural to Artificial.

The terminal reaction cascade of water oxidation: proton and oxygen release

In cyanobacteria, algae and plants Photosystem II produces the oxygen we breathe. Driven and clocked by light quanta, the catalytic Mn(4)Ca-tyrosine centre accumulates four oxidising equivalents before it abstracts four electrons from water, liberating dioxygen and protons. Aiming at intermediates of the terminal four-electron cascade, we previously have suppressed this reaction by elevating the oxygen pressure, thereby stabilising one redox intermediate. Here, we established a similar suppression by increasing the proton concentration. Data were analysed in terms of only one (peroxy) redox intermediate between the fourfold oxidised Mn(4)Ca-tyrosine centre and oxygen release. The surprising result was that the release into the bulk of one proton per dioxygen is linked to the first and rate-limiting electron transfer in the cascade rather than to the second which produces free oxygen. The penultimate intermediate might thus be conceived as a fully deprotonated peroxy-moiety.

Photosystem II: structure and mechanism of the water:plastoquinone oxidoreductase

This mini-review briefly summarizes our current knowledge on the reaction pattern of light-driven water splitting and the structure of Photosystem II that acts as a water:plastoquinone oxidoreductase. The overall process comprises three types of reaction sequences: (a) light-induced charge separation leading to formation of the radical ion pair P680+*QA(-*) ; (b) reduction of plastoquinone to plastoquinol at the QB site via a two-step reaction sequence with QA(-*) as reductant and (c) oxidative water splitting into O2 and four protons at a manganese-containing catalytic site via a four-step sequence driven by P680+* as oxidant and a redox active tyrosine YZ acting as mediator. Based on recent progress in X-ray diffraction crystallographic structure analysis the array of the cofactors within the protein matrix is discussed in relation to the functional pattern. Special emphasis is paid on the structure of the catalytic sites of PQH2 formation (QB-site) and oxidative water splitting (Mn4OxCa cluster). The energetics and kinetics of the reactions taking place at these sites are presented only in a very concise manner with reference to recent up-to-date reviews. It is illustrated that several questions on the mechanism of oxidative water splitting and the structure of the catalytic sites are far from being satisfactorily answered.

Voltage changes involving photosystem II quinone–iron complex turnover

An electrometrical technique was used to investigate proton-coupled electron transfer between the primary plastoquinone acceptor Q (A) (-) and the oxidized non-heme iron Fe(3+) on the acceptor side of photosystem II core particles incorporated into phospholipid vesicles. The sign of the transmembrane electric potential difference Deltapsi (negative charging of the proteoliposome interior) indicates that the iron-quinone complex faces the interior surface of the proteoliposome membrane. Preoxidation of the non-heme iron was achieved by addition of potassium ferricyanide entrapped into proteoliposomes. Besides the fast unresolvable kinetic phase (tau approximately 0.1 micro s) of Deltapsi generation related to electron transfer between the redox-active tyrosine Y(Z) and Q(A), an additional phase in the submillisecond time domain (tau approximately 0.1 ms at 23 degrees C, pH 7.0) and relative amplitude approximately 20% of the amplitude of the fast phase was observed under exposure to the first flash. This phase was absent under the second laser flash, as well as upon the first flash in the presence of DCMU, an inhibitor of electron transfer between Q(A) and the secondary quinone Q(B). The rate of the additional electrogenic phase is decreased by about one-half in the presence of D(2)O and is reduced with the temperature decrease. On the basis of the above observations we suggest that the submillisecond electrogenic reaction induced by the first flash is due to the vectorial transfer of a proton from external aqueous phase to an amino acid residue(s) in the vicinity of the non-heme iron. The possible role of the non-heme iron in cyclic electron transfer in photosystem II complex is discussed.

Electrostatics and proton transfer in photosynthetic water oxidation

Photosystem II (PSII) oxidizes two water molecules to yield dioxygen plus four protons. Dioxygen is released during the last out of four sequential oxidation steps of the catalytic centre (S(0) --> S(1), S(1) --> S(2), S(2) --> S(3), S(3) --> S(4) --> S(0)). The release of the chemically produced protons is blurred by transient, highly variable and electrostatically triggered proton transfer at the periphery (Bohr effect). The extent of the latter transiently amounts to more than one H(+)/e(-) under certain conditions and this is understood in terms of electrostatics. By kinetic analyses of electron-proton transfer and electrochromism, we discriminated between Bohr-effect and chemically produced protons and arrived at a distribution of the latter over the oxidation steps of 1 : 0 : 1 : 2. During the oxidation of tyr-161 on subunit D1 (Y(Z)), its phenolic proton is not normally released into the bulk. Instead, it is shared with and confined in a hydrogen-bonded cluster. This notion is difficult to reconcile with proposed mechanisms where Y(Z) acts as a hydrogen acceptor for bound water. Only in manganese (Mn) depleted PSII is the proton released into the bulk and this changes the rate of electron transfer between Y(Z) and the primary donor of PSII P(+)(680) from electron to proton controlled. D1-His190, the proposed centre of the hydrogen-bonded cluster around Y(Z), is probably further remote from Y(Z) than previously thought, because substitution of D1-Glu189, its direct neighbour, by Gln, Arg or Lys is without effect on the electron transfer from Y(Z) to P(+)(680) (in nanoseconds) and from the Mn cluster to Y(ox)(Z).

Isolation and properties of PS II membrane fragments depleted of the non heme iron center

The functional properties and the content of non heme iron and cytochrome b559 were investigated by measuring flash induced transient changes of the relative fluorescence quantum yield and applying Mössbauer spectroscopy. It was found that untreated PS II membrane fragments contain a heterogeneous population of two types of non heme iron centers and about 2 cytochrome b559 per PS II. Twofold treatment of these samples with a recently described 'iron depletion' procedure (MacMillan, F., Lendzian, F., Renger, G. and Lubitz, W. (1995) Biochemistry 34, 3144-3156) leads to a complete loss (below the detection limit of Mössbauer spectroscopy) of the non heme iron center while more than 50% of the PS II complexes retain the functional integrity for light induced formation of the 'stable' radical pair Y(OX)(Z) P680Pheo Q(-.)(A). This sample type deprived of virtually all non heme iron in PS II provides a most suitable material for magnetic resonance studies that require an elimination of the interaction between Fe2+ and nearby radicals.

Analyses of pH-induced modifications of the period four oscillation of flash-induced oxygen evolution reveal distinct structural changes of the photosystem II donor side at characteristic pH values

This study presents a thorough analysis of the reaction pattern of flash-induced oxygen evolution in spinach thylakoids as a function of pH (4.5 < or = pH < or = 9) and the redox state of tyrosine YD in polypeptide D2. Evaluation of the experimental data within the conventional Kok model [Kok, B., Forbush, B., & McGloin, M. (1970) Photochem. Photobiol. 11, 457-475] led to the following results: (1) the probability of the miss factor is strongly pH dependent (with a pronounced minimum near neutral pH) while the double hit factor is less affected; (2) a marked increase of the apparent S0 population arises at alkaline pH in dark-adapted samples where most of the YD is reduced, but this effect is absent if the percentage of PS II containing the oxidized form YDox is high; and (3) the lifetimes of S2 and S3 exhibit a characteristic pH dependence that is indicative of conformational changes of functional relevance within the water-oxidizing complex and its environment; (4) the kinetic interaction of redox states S2 and S3 with YD is characterized by a change of its behavior at a threshold pH of 6.5-7.0; and (5) at acidic pH values the extent of S2 and S3 reduction by YD decreases concomitant with the occurrence of a very fast decay kinetics. On the basis of a detailed discussion of these results and data from the literature, the water oxidase is inferred to undergo structural changes at pH values of 5-5.5 and 6.5-7.0. These transitions are almost independent of the redox state Si and modify the reaction coordinates of the water oxidase toward endogenous reductants.

The photoproduction of superoxide radicals and the superoxide dismutase activity of Photosystem II. The possible involvement of cytochrome b559

In the present study the light induced formation of superoxide and intrinsic superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in PS II membrane fragments and D1/D2/Cytb559-complexes from spinach have been analyzed by the use of ferricytochrome c (cyt c(III)) reduction and xanthine/xanthine oxidase as assay systems. The following results were obtained: 1.) Photoreduction of Cyt c (III) by PS II membrane fragments is induced by addition of sodium azide, tetracyane ethylene (TCNE) or carbonylcyanide-p-trifluoromethoxy-phenylhydrazone (FCCP) and after removal of the extrinsic polypeptides by a 1M CaCl2-treatment. This activity which is absent in control samples becomes completely inhibited by the addition of exogenous SOD. 2.) The TCNE induced cyt c(III) photoreduction by PS II membrane fragments was found to be characterized by a half maximal concentration of c1/2=10 μM TCNE. Simultaneously, TCNE inhibits the oxygen evolution rate of PS II membrane fragments with c1/2≈ 3 μM. 3.) The photoproduction of O2 (-) is coupled with H(+)-uptake. This effect is diminished by the addition of the O2 (-)-trap cyt c(III). 4.) D1/D2/Cytb559-complexes and PS II membrane fragments deprived of the extrinsic proteins and manganese exhibit no SOD-activity but are capable of producing O2 (-) in the light if a PS II electron donor is added.Based on these results the site(s) of light induced superoxide formation in PS II is (are) inferred to be located at the acceptor side. A part of the PS II donor side and Cyt b559 in its HP-form are proposed to provide an intrinsic superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity.

The rates of proton uptake and electron transfer at the reducing side of photosystem II in thylakoids

Proton and electron transfer at the reducing side of photosystem II of green plants was studied under flashing light, the former at improved time resolution by using Neutral red. The rates of electron transfer within QAFeQB were determined by pump-probe flashes through electrochromic transients. The extent of proton binding was about 1 H+/e-. The rates of proton transfer were proportional to the concentration of Neutral red (collisional transfer), whereas the rates of electron transfer out of QA- and from QAFeQB- to the cytochrome b6f complex were constant. The half-rise times of electron transfer (tau e) and the apparent times of proton binding (tau h) at 30 microM Neutral red were: QA- --> FeIIIQB (tau c < or = 100 microseconds, tau h = 230 microseconds); QA- --> FeIIQB (tau c = 150 microseconds, tau h = 760 microseconds); and QA- --> FeIIQB (tau c = 150 microseconds, tau h = 760 microseconds); and QA- --> FeIIQB (tau c = 620 microseconds, tau h = 310 microseconds).

Thermoluminescence and flash-induced oxygen yield in herbicide resistant mutants of the D1 protein in Synechococcus PCC7942

Several strains of Synechococcus PCC7942 carrying point mutations in the gene psbA were studied by thermoluminescence and polarographic measurement of flash-induced oxygen yield. The following results were obtained: (a) Replacement of Ser-264 in D1 by Ala (mutant Di1) or Gly (mutant G264) resulting in DCMU and atrazine resistance leads to a downshift of the thermoluminescence (TL) B-band peak temperature from 40 degrees C in wild-type thylakoids to about 30 degrees C. In dark adapted samples of both mutants the TL and oxygen yield pattern induced by a train of single turnover flashes were strongly damped indicative of a high miss factor. (b) In contrast to Ser-264 mutants, replacement of Phe-255 in D1 by Tyr (mutant Tyr5) induced strong resistance to atrazine but not to DCMU and did not affect the peak termperature of the B-band and the flash-induced TL and oxygen yield patterns. In this respect mutant Tyr5 resembles the wild type. (c) No significant differences have been found between strains with single site mutations in psbAI and normal psbAII/psbAIII genes, and strains with same mutations in psbAI but additional deletion of psbAII and psbAIII. Obviously in strains were psbAI is present, PS II complexes containing gene products of psbAII and psbAIII are not assembled in detectable amounts. (d) Strains with double mutations at positions 264 and 255 display a downshift of the B-band peak temperature. Their oscillatory patterns of B-band intensity and oxygen yield are highly damped. This behaviour is similar to strains D1 and G264 which are modified at position 264 only. We extend reports on additivity of mutation effects on herbicide binding to binding of QB. (e) Mutations at the QB site not only influence the binding of QB and herbicides but also change the thermoluminescence quantum yield and the lifetimes of the redox states S2 and S3 of the water oxidase. This finding might indicate long ranging effects on Photosystem II exerted by structural modifications of the QB site. From these data we conclude that Ser-264 is essential for binding of atrazine, DCMU and QB, whereas Phe-255 is involved in atrazine binding and its substitution by Tyr does not markedly affect QB or DCMU binding in Synechococcus PCC7942.

Photoinhibition affects the non-heme iron center in photosystem II

Effects on the PS II acceptor side caused by exposure to strong white light (180 W/m2) of PS II membrane fragments (spinach) at pH 6.5 and 0 degrees C were analyzed by measuring low temperature EPR signals and flash-induced transient changes of the fluorescence quantum yield. The following results were obtained: (a) the extent of the light induced g = 1.9 EPR signal as a measure of photochemical Fe2+QA- formation declines with progressing photoinhibition. The half-life of this effect is independent of the absence or presence of an exogenous electron acceptor during the photoinhibitory treatment; (b) in samples photoinhibited in the absence of an electron acceptor and subsequently incubated with K3[Fe(CN)6] in the dark, the extent of the g = 8 EPR signal (reflecting the oxidized Fe3+ form of the endogenous non-heme iron center) and of the flash-induced change of the fluorescence yield (as a measure of fast electron transfer from QA- to Fe3+ after the first flash; [see (1992) Photosynth. Res. 31, 113-126] exhibits the same dependence on photoinhibition time as the g = 1.9 EPR signal; (c) in samples photoinhibited in the presence of an exogenous electron acceptor, the signals reflecting Fe(3+)-formation and fast electron transfer from QA- to Fe3+ decline faster than the g = 1.9 EPR signal. These results provide for the first time direct evidence that the endogenous non-heme iron center located between QA and QB is susceptible to modifications by light stress. The implications of this finding will be discussed.

Effects of photoinhibition on the PS II acceptor side including the endogenous high spin Fe(2+) in thylakoids, PS II-membrane fragments and PS II core complexes

Effects of photoinhibition at 0 °C on the PS II acceptor side have been analyzed by comparative studies in isolated thylakoids, PS II membrane fragments and PS II core complexes from spinach under conditions where degradation of polypeptide(s) D1(D2) is highly retarded. The following results were obtained by measurements of the transient fluorescence quantum and oxygen yield, respectively, induced by a train of short flashes in dark-adapted samples: (a) in the control the decay of the fluorescence quantum yield is very rapid after the first flash, if the dark incubation was performed in the presence of 300 μM K3[Fe(CN)6]; whereas, a characteristic binary oscillation was observed in the presence of 100 μM phenyl-p-benzoquinone with a very fast relaxation after the even flashes (2nd, 4th. . . ) of the sequence; (b) illumination of the samples in the presence of K3[Fe(CN)6] for only 5 min with white light (180 W m(-2)) largely eliminates the very fast fluorescence decay after the first flash due to QA (-) reoxidation by preoxidized endogenous non-heme Fe(3+), while a smaller effect arises on the relaxation kinetics of the fluorescence transients induced by the subsequent flashes; (c) the extent of the normalized variable fluorescence due to the second (and subsequent) flash(es) declines in all sample types with a biphasic time dependence at longer illumination. The decay times of the fast (6-9 min) and the slow degradation component (60-75 min) are practically independent of the absence or presence of K3[Fe(CN)6] and of anaerobic and aerobic conditions during the photo-inhibitory treatment, while the relative extent of the fast decay component is higher under anaerobic conditions. (d) The relaxation kinetics of the variable fluorescence induced by the second (and subsequent) flash(es) become retarded due to photoinhibition, and (e) the oscillation pattern of the oxygen yield caused by a flash train is not drastically changed due to photoinhibition.Based on these findings, it is concluded that photoinhibition modifies the reaction pattern of the PS II acceptor side prior to protein degradation. The endogenous high spin Fe(2+) located between QA and QB is shown to become highly susceptible to modification by photoinhibition in the presence of K3[Fe(CN)6] (and other exogenous acceptors), while the rate constant of QA (-) reoxidation by QB(QB (-)) and other acceptors (except the special reaction via Fe(3+)) is markedly less affected by a short photoinhibition. The equilibrium constant between QA (-) and QB(QB (-)) is not drastically changed as reflected by the damping parameters of the oscillation pattern of oxygen evolution.

Current perceptions of Photosystem II

In the last few years our knowledge of the structure and function of Photosystem II in oxygen-evolving organisms has increased significantly. The biochemical isolation and characterization of essential protein components and the comparative analysis from purple photosynthetic bacteria (Deisenhofer, Epp, Miki, Huber and Michel (1984) J Mol Biol 180: 385-398) have led to a more concise picture of Photosystem II organization. Thus, it is now generally accepted that the so-called D1 and D2 intrinsic proteins bind the primary reactants and the reducing-side components. Simultaneously, the nature and reaction kinetics of the major electron transfer components have been further clarified. For example, the radicals giving rise to the different forms of EPR Signal II have recently been assigned to oxidized tyrosine residues on the D1 and D2 proteins, while the so-called Q400 component has been assigned to the ferric form of the acceptor-side iron. The primary charge-separation has been meaured to take place in about 3 ps. However, despite all recent major efforts, the location of the manganese ions and the water-oxidation mechanism still remain largely unknown. Other topics which lately have received much attention include the organization of Photosystem II in the thylakoid membrane and the role of lipids and ionic cofactors like bicarbonate, calcium and chloride. This article attempts to give an overall update in this rapidly expanding field.