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Moreira-Pais A, Ferreira R, Oliveira PA, Duarte JA. A neuromuscular perspective of sarcopenia pathogenesis: deciphering the signaling pathways involved. GeroScience 2022; 44:1199-1213. [PMID: 34981273 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-021-00510-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The escalation of life expectancy is accompanied by an increase in the prevalence of age-related conditions, such as sarcopenia. Sarcopenia, a muscle condition defined by low muscle strength, muscle quality or quantity, and physical performance, has a high prevalence among the elderly and is associated to increased mortality. The neuromuscular system has been emerging as a key contributor to sarcopenia pathogenesis. Indeed, the age-related degeneration of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) function and structure may contribute to the loss of muscle strength and ultimately to the loss of muscle mass that characterize sarcopenia. The present mini-review discusses important signaling pathways involved in the function and maintenance of the NMJ, giving emphasis to the ones that might contribute to sarcopenia pathogenesis. Some conceivable biomarkers, such as C-terminal agrin fragment (CAF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and therapeutic targets, namely acetylcholine and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), can be retrieved, making way to future studies to validate their clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Moreira-Pais
- CIAFEL, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Dr. Plácido da Costa 91, 4200-450, Porto, Portugal. .,LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal. .,Centre for Research and Technology of Agro Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Inov4Agro, University of Trás-Os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801, Vila Real, Portugal.
| | - Rita Ferreira
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Paula A Oliveira
- Centre for Research and Technology of Agro Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Inov4Agro, University of Trás-Os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - José A Duarte
- CIAFEL, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Dr. Plácido da Costa 91, 4200-450, Porto, Portugal.,TOXRUN - Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, CESPU, CRL, Gandra, Portugal
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Rahmati M, Taherabadi SJ. The effects of exercise training on Kinesin and GAP-43 expression in skeletal muscle fibers of STZ-induced diabetic rats. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9535. [PMID: 33953268 PMCID: PMC8099856 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89106-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Kinesin-1 and Growth Associated Protein 43 (GAP-43) localization in muscle fiber are crucial for proper skeletal muscle hypertrophy. To evaluate this assumption, we investigated the beneficial effects of endurance training on GAP-43 and Kinesin Family Member 5B (KIF5B) expression in gastrocnemius muscle of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. Fifty-two male rats were randomly divided into four groups: healthy control (C), healthy trained (T), diabetic control (DC) and diabetic trained (DT). Diabetes was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of STZ (45 mg/kg). The rats in DT and T groups were subjected to treadmill running for 5 days a week over 6 weeks. The results indicated that the GAP-43 and KIF5B protein levels in the DC group were significantly lower than those in the C group. Additionally, chronic treadmill running in diabetic rats was accompanied by significant increase of GAP-43 and KIF5B protein expression, compared to DC group. Furthermore, the endurance training in healthy rats was associated with a significant increase of GAP-43 and KIF5B protein levels. In addition, we found positive correlation between GAP-43 and KIF5B protein levels and myonuclear number per fiber and average gastrocnemius cross-sectional area (CSA). GAP43 and KIF5B protein levels were decreased in skeletal muscles of diabetic rats, and exercise training had beneficial effects and could restore their abnormal expression. Moreover, there is a strong relationship between muscle hypertrophy and GAP-43 and KIF5B protein levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoud Rahmati
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Literature and Human Sciences, Lorestan University, Khoramabad, Iran.
| | - Seyed Jalal Taherabadi
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Literature and Human Sciences, Lorestan University, Khoramabad, Iran
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Caprara GA, Morabito C, Perni S, Navarra R, Guarnieri S, Mariggiò MA. Evidence for Altered Ca 2+ Handling in Growth Associated Protein 43-Knockout Skeletal Muscle. Front Physiol 2016; 7:493. [PMID: 27833566 PMCID: PMC5080375 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal growth-associated protein 43 (GAP43) has crucial roles in the nervous system, and during development, regeneration after injury, and learning and memory. GAP43 is expressed in mouse skeletal muscle fibers and satellite cells, with suggested its involvement in intracellular Ca2+ handling. However, the physiological role of GAP43 in muscle remains unknown. Using a GAP43-knockout (GAP43-/-) mouse, we have defined the role of GAP43 in skeletal muscle. GAP43-/- mice showed low survival beyond weaning, reduced adult body weight, decreased muscle strength, and changed myofiber ultrastructure, with no significant differences in the expression of markers of satellite cell and myotube progression through the myogenic program. Thus, GAP43 expression is involved in timing of muscle maturation in-vivo. Intracellular Ca2+ measurements in-vitro in myotubes revealed GAP43 involvement in Ca2+ handling. In the absence of GAP43 expression, the spontaneous Ca2+ variations had greater amplitudes and higher frequency. In GAP43-/- myotubes, also the intracellular Ca2+ variations induced by the activation of dihydropyridine and ryanodine Ca2+ channels, resulted modified. These evidences suggested dysregulation of Ca2+ homeostasis. The emerging hypothesis indicates that GAP43 interacts with calmodulin to indirectly modulate the activities of dihydropyridine and ryanodine Ca2+ channels. This thus influences intracellular Ca2+ dynamics and its related intracellular patterns, from functional excitation-contraction coupling, to cell metabolism, and gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giusy A Caprara
- Laboratory of Functional Biotechnology, Center of Sciences on Aging and Translational Medicine (CeSI-MeT), Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University G. d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara Chieti, Italy
| | - Caterina Morabito
- Laboratory of Functional Biotechnology, Center of Sciences on Aging and Translational Medicine (CeSI-MeT), Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University G. d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara Chieti, Italy
| | - Stefano Perni
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Riccardo Navarra
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University G. d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara Chieti, Italy
| | - Simone Guarnieri
- Laboratory of Functional Biotechnology, Center of Sciences on Aging and Translational Medicine (CeSI-MeT), Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University G. d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara Chieti, Italy
| | - Maria A Mariggiò
- Laboratory of Functional Biotechnology, Center of Sciences on Aging and Translational Medicine (CeSI-MeT), Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University G. d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara Chieti, Italy
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Caprara GA, Perni S, Morabito C, Mariggiò MA, Guarnieri S. Specific association of growth-associated protein 43 with calcium release units in skeletal muscles of lower vertebrates. Eur J Histochem 2014; 58:2453. [PMID: 25578978 PMCID: PMC4289850 DOI: 10.4081/ejh.2014.2453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 11/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth-associated protein 43 (GAP43), is a strictly conserved protein among vertebrates implicated in neuronal development and neurite branching. Since GAP43 structure contains a calmodulin-binding domain, this protein is able to bind calmodulin and gather it nearby membrane network, thus regulating cytosolic calcium and consequently calcium-dependent intracellular events. Even if for many years GAP43 has been considered a neuronal-specific protein, evidence from different laboratories described its presence in myoblasts, myotubes and adult skeletal muscle fibers. Data from our laboratory showed that GAP43 is localized between calcium release units (CRUs) and mitochondria in mammalian skeletal muscle suggesting that, also in skeletal muscle, this protein can be a key player in calcium/calmodulin homeostasis. However, the previous studies could not clearly distinguish between a mitochondrion- or a triad-related positioning of GAP43. To solve this question, the expression and localization of GAP43 was studied in skeletal muscle of Xenopus and Zebrafish known to have triads located at the level of the Z-lines and mitochondria not closely associated with them. Western blotting and immunostaining experiments revealed the expression of GAP43 also in skeletal muscle of lower vertebrates (like amphibians and fishes), and that the protein is localized closely to the triad junction. Once more, these results and GAP43 structural features, support an involvement of the protein in the dynamic intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis, a common conserved role among the different species.
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Guarnieri S, Morabito C, Paolini C, Boncompagni S, Pilla R, Fanò-Illic G, Mariggiò MA. Growth associated protein 43 is expressed in skeletal muscle fibers and is localized in proximity of mitochondria and calcium release units. PLoS One 2013; 8:e53267. [PMID: 23308181 PMCID: PMC3538766 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuronal Growth Associated Protein 43 (GAP43), also known as B-50 or neuromodulin, is involved in mechanisms controlling pathfinding and branching of neurons during development and regeneration. For many years this protein was classified as neuron-specific, but recent evidences suggest that a) GAP43 is expressed in the nervous system not only in neurons, but also in glial cells, and b) probably it is present also in other tissues. In particular, its expression was revealed in muscles from patients affected by various myopathies, indicating that GAP43 can no-longer considered only as a neuron-specific molecule. We have investigated the expression and subcellular localization of GAP43 in mouse satellite cells, myotubes, and adult muscle (extensor digitorum longus or EDL) using Western blotting, immuno-fluorescence combined to confocal microscopy and electron microscopy. Our in vitro results indicated that GAP43 is indeed expressed in both myoblasts and differentiating myotubes, and its cellular localization changes dramatically during maturation: in myoblasts the localization appeared to be mostly nuclear, whereas with differentiation the protein started to display a sarcomeric-like pattern. In adult fibers, GAP43 expression was evident with the protein labeling forming (in longitudinal views) a double cross striation reminiscent of the staining pattern of other organelles, such as calcium release units (CRUs) and mitochondria. Double immuno-staining and experiments done in EDL muscles fixed at different sarcomere lengths, allowed us to determine the localization, from the sarcomere Z-line, of GAP43 positive foci, falling between that of CRUs and of mitochondria. Staining of cross sections added a detail to the puzzle: GAP43 labeling formed a reticular pattern surrounding individual myofibrils, but excluding contractile elements. This work leads the way to further investigation about the possible physiological and structural role of GAP43 protein in adult fiber function and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Guarnieri
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging (DNI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Center for Research on Ageing (CeSI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Interuniversitary Institute of Myology (IIM), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
| | - Caterina Morabito
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging (DNI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Center for Research on Ageing (CeSI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Interuniversitary Institute of Myology (IIM), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
| | - Cecilia Paolini
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging (DNI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Center for Research on Ageing (CeSI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Interuniversitary Institute of Myology (IIM), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
| | - Simona Boncompagni
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging (DNI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Center for Research on Ageing (CeSI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Interuniversitary Institute of Myology (IIM), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
| | - Raffaele Pilla
- Center for Research on Ageing (CeSI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Interuniversitary Institute of Myology (IIM), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
| | - Giorgio Fanò-Illic
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging (DNI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Center for Research on Ageing (CeSI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Interuniversitary Institute of Myology (IIM), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
| | - Maria A. Mariggiò
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging (DNI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Center for Research on Ageing (CeSI), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
- Interuniversitary Institute of Myology (IIM), University G. d’Annunzio, Chieti, Italy
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Paden CM, Watt JA, Selong TH, Paterson CL, Cranston HJ. The neuronal growth-associated protein (GAP)-43 is expressed by corticotrophs in the rat anterior pituitary after adrenalectomy. Endocrinology 2006; 147:952-8. [PMID: 16269460 DOI: 10.1210/en.2005-0715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal growth-associated protein (GAP)-43 has been localized in both long fibers and punctate clusters by immunocytochemistry within the rat anterior pituitary (AP). After adrenalectomy (ADX), GAP-43 immunoreactivity (GAP-43-ir) is greatly increased and is associated with corticotrophs at the light microscopic level. We have undertaken an electron microscopic study to determine the cellular localization of GAP-43 in the post-ADX AP. Using preembedding immunocytochemistry, we found GAP-43-ir localized exclusively to the cytoplasmic surface of the plasmalemma within a subset of endocrine cells with ultrastructure typical of degranulated corticotrophs at 4 d after ADX. We combined preembedding immunoelectron microscopy for GAP-43 with immunogold labeling for ACTH and found that GAP-43-ir was invariably present only in cells containing ACTH-positive granules. The density of GAP-43-ir was highest within extensive processes emanating from the soma, suggesting that these processes are the basis for the punctate clusters of GAP-43 staining seen surrounding corticotrophs in the light microscope. We also observed rare synaptic-like contacts between GAP-43-ir processes and distant cell bodies. GAP-43 mRNA was detected in extracts of the AP 4 d after ADX using RT-PCR, and quantitative PCR confirmed that GAP-43 mRNA was significantly up-regulated in the AP in response to ADX. We postulate that increased expression of GAP-43 may stimulate process outgrowth and intercellular communication by activated corticotrophs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles M Paden
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, 513 Leon Johnson Hall, Montana State University, Bozeman, 59717-3148, USA.
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Metz GA, Schwab ME. Behavioral characterization in a comprehensive mouse test battery reveals motor and sensory impairments in growth-associated protein-43 null mutant mice. Neuroscience 2005; 129:563-74. [PMID: 15541878 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.07.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/29/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The growth-associated protein (GAP)-43 is a major neuronal protein associated with axonal growth, neuronal plasticity and learning. The observation that only 5-10% of mice with a full GAP-43 gene deletion survive weaning suggests that basic neural functions are disturbed. Here we used a comprehensive test battery to characterise and quantify the motor and sensory function of surviving adult homozygous GAP-43 (-/-) mice as compared with GAP-43 (+/-) and wild-type animals. The test battery was comprised of motor, sensory, and reflex tests producing 25 measures of locomotion, as well as epicritic, auditory, olfactory and visual function. The analysis revealed significant impairments in muscle strength, limb coordination and balance in GAP-43 (-/-) mice. Furthermore, GAP-43 (-/-) animals were hyperactive and showed reduced anxiety as measured by open field and light dark tests. In sensory tests, GAP-43 (-/-) mice were tested for impaired tactile and labyrinthine function. Abnormal reflexes were found in the contact and vibrissa placing responses, and in the crossed extensor reflex. GAP-43 (+/-) animals showed only moderate abnormalities as compared with wild-type animals. We conclude that GAP-43 is necessary for the development and function of a variety of neuronal systems. The results also show that the comprehensive test battery used in the present study represents a sensitive approach to assess the functional integrity of ascending and descending pathways in genetically manipulated mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Metz
- Canadian Center for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, Alberta, T1K 3M4 Canada.
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Buma P, Elmans L, Van Den Berg WB, Schrama LH. Neurovascular plasticity in the knee joint of an arthritic mouse model. THE ANATOMICAL RECORD 2000; 260:51-61. [PMID: 10967536 DOI: 10.1002/1097-0185(20000901)260:1<51::aid-ar60>3.0.co;2-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Lower numbers of neuropeptide-containing fibers in arthritic joints have been found as compared to control joints. This may be the result of fiber depletion, necrosis of fibers, or proliferation of soft tissues without neural sprouting. To discriminate between these possibilities, we studied the relationships between soft tissue proliferation, changes in vascularity of synovial tissues, and changes in joint innervation during arthritis. Arthritis was induced in the knee joint of mice by a single subpatellar injection of methylated bovine serum albumin after previous immunization. Antibodies to protein gene product 9.5, S-100, and growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) were used to study the general innervation pattern. Antibodies to calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), vasointestinal polypeptide (VIP), substance P (SP), and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) were used to localize sensory (SP, CGRP, VIP) and sympathetic (TH) fibers. Blood vessels of the joint were studied with ink perfusion, GAP-43, and a vascular marker (LF1). Directly after the induction of arthritis, the synovial cavity was enlarged and filled with leukocytes. From day 4 onward, small sprouting blood vessels penetrated the avascular mass of cells in the joint cavity. After 1 week, the vascular sprouting activity and GAP-43 immunoreactivity were maximal, and after 2 weeks, vascular sprouting activity diminished. In the subsequent period, the synovia slowly regained their prearthritic appearance and thickness. The most pronounced changes in the general staining pattern of CGRP, SP, VIP, and TH were found in the periosteum. From 2 days to 4 weeks after the induction of arthritis, the layer of SP, CGRP, and VIP fibers in the femoral periosteum was thicker and more irregular. GAP-43 staining showed many terminal varicosities, which suggested sprouting of nerve fibers. From 2 days to 2 weeks after the induction of arthritis, the SP and CGRP fibers in the periosteum showed gradual depletion. In the thickened subsynovial tissues that were revascularized, no ingrowth of neural elements was found. As the total number of nerve fibers in the synovial tissue did not change, large parts of the synovia directly facing the joint cavity were not innervated at 1 week after the induction of arthritis. These results strongly suggest that periosteal SP and CGRP fibers were depleted during arthritis. Synovial proliferation without concomitant fiber growth is the main cause of the reduced number of immunocytochemically detectable fibers in the mouse arthritic knee joint.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Buma
- Institute of Orthopaedics, Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University Hospital Nijmegen, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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The activity of a highly promiscuous AP-1 element can be confined to neurons by a tissue-selective repressive element. J Neurosci 1998. [PMID: 9651209 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.18-14-05264.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue-specific gene transcription can be determined by the use of either positive-acting or negative-acting DNA regulatory elements. We have analyzed a promoter from the growth-associated protein 43 (GAP-43) gene and found that it uses both of these mechanisms to achieve its high degree of neuron-specific activity. Two novel transcription factor binding sites, designated Cx1 and Cx2, drive promoter activity in neurons from developing cerebral cortex but not in several other cell types. The promoter also contains an activator protein 1 (AP-1) site that contributes to activity in neurons. The AP-1 site can drive promoter activity in a wide range of non-neuronal cells that express little or no endogenous GAP-43, but only in the absence of a tissue-specific repressive element located downstream of the GAP-43 TATA box. These findings suggest that the GAP-43 repressive element plays an important role in allowing AP-1 signaling pathways to modulate activity of the GAP-43 gene in neurons, without also causing inappropriate activation by AP-1 transcription factors in other cell types.
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