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Dias S, Souza RC, Vasconcelos EV, Vasconcelos S, da Silva Oliveira AR, do Vale Martins L, de Oliveira Bustamante F, da Costa VA, Souza G, da Costa AF, Benko-Iseppon AM, Knytl M, Brasileiro-Vidal AC. Cytomolecular diversity among Vigna Savi (Leguminosae) subgenera. PROTOPLASMA 2024:10.1007/s00709-024-01944-z. [PMID: 38467939 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-024-01944-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
The genus Vigna (Leguminosae) comprises about 150 species grouped into five subgenera. The present study aimed to improve the understanding of karyotype diversity and evolution in Vigna, using new and previously published data through different cytogenetic and DNA content approaches. In the Vigna subgenera, we observed a random distribution of rDNA patterns. The 35S rDNA varied in position, from terminal to proximal, and in number, ranging from one (V. aconitifolia, V. subg. Ceratotropis) to seven pairs (V. unguiculata subsp. unguiculata, V. subg. Vigna). On the other hand, the number of 5S rDNA was conserved (one or two pairs), except for V. radiata (V. subg. Ceratotropis), which had three pairs. Genome size was relatively conserved within the genus, ranging from 1C = 0.43 to 0.70 pg in V. oblongifolia and V. unguiculata subsp. unguiculata, respectively, both belonging to V. subg. Vigna. However, we observed a positive correlation between DNA content and the number of 35S rDNA sites. In addition, data from chromosome-specific BAC-FISH suggest that the ancestral 35S rDNA locus is conserved on chromosome 6 within Vigna. Considering the rapid diversification in the number and position of rDNA sites, such conservation is surprising and suggests that additional sites may have spread out from this ancestral locus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibelle Dias
- Departamento de Genética, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Rosilda Cintra Souza
- Departamento de Genética, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia Keizo Asami, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Lívia do Vale Martins
- Departamento de Genética, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
- Campus Amilcar Ferreira Sobral, Universidade Federal Do Piauí, Floriano, PI, Brazil
| | - Fernanda de Oliveira Bustamante
- Departamento de Genética, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
- Universidade Do Estado de Minas Gerais - Unidade Divinópolis, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil
| | - Victor Alves da Costa
- Departamento de Genética, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Souza
- Departamento de Botânica, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Maria Benko-Iseppon
- Departamento de Genética, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Martin Knytl
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S4K1, Canada
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, Prague, 12843, Czech Republic
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Franco AL, Figueredo A, Pereira LDM, de Sousa SM, Souza G, Carvalho MA, Simon MF, Viccini LF. Low cytomolecular diversification in the genus Stylosanthes Sw. (Papilionoideae, Leguminosae). Genet Mol Biol 2020; 43:e20180250. [PMID: 31429856 PMCID: PMC7197990 DOI: 10.1590/1678-4685-gmb-2018-0250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Stylosanthes (Papilionoideae, Leguminosae) is a predominantly Neotropical genus with ~48 species that include worldwide important forage species. This study presents the chromosome number and morphology of eight species of the genus Stylosanthes (S. acuminata, S. gracilis, S. grandifolia, S. guianensis, S. hippocampoides, S. pilosa, S. macrocephala, and S. ruellioides). In addition, staining with CMA and DAPI, in situ hybridization with 5S and 35S rDNA probes, and estimation of DNA content were performed. The interpretation of Stylosanthes chromosome diversification was anchored by a comparison with the sister genus Arachis and a dated molecular phylogeny based on nuclear and plastid loci. Stylosanthes species showed 2n = 20, with low cytomolecular diversification regarding 5S rDNA, 35S rDNA, and genome size. Arachis has a more ancient diversification (~7 Mya in the Pliocene) than the relatively recent Stylosanthes (~2 Mya in the Pleistocene), and it seems more diverse than its sister lineage. Our data support the idea that the cytomolecular stability of Stylosanthes in relation to Arachis could be a result of its recent origin. The recent diversification of Stylosanthes could also be related to the low morphological differentiation among species, and to the recurrent formation of allopolyploid complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Luiza Franco
- Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Departamento de Biologia, Laboratório de Genética, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil
| | - Amanda Figueredo
- Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Departamento de Botânica, Laboratório de Citogenética e Evolução Vegetal, CCB, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Lívia de Moraes Pereira
- Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Departamento de Botânica, Laboratório de Citogenética e Evolução Vegetal, CCB, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Saulo Marçal de Sousa
- Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Departamento de Biologia, Laboratório de Genética, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Souza
- Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Departamento de Botânica, Laboratório de Citogenética e Evolução Vegetal, CCB, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | | | - Marcelo F. Simon
- Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, Embrapa Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, PqEB, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Lyderson Facio Viccini
- Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Departamento de Biologia, Laboratório de Genética, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil
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Shamurailatpam A, Madhavan L, Yadav SR, Bhat KV, Rao SR. Heterochromatin characterization through differential fluorophore binding pattern in some species of Vigna Savi. PROTOPLASMA 2015; 252:629-635. [PMID: 25303854 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-014-0708-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Heterochromatin regions are the most intensively studied and best known chromosome markers in plants. In Vigna species, blocks of constitutive heterochromatin were found either in the terminal or interstitial region of the chromosomes. The number and distribution of CMA(+) and DAPI(+) binding sites exhibit high chromosomal variability with characteristic unique banding patterns in all the eight taxa. A predominant feature was observed, i.e., most of the CMA(+) binding sites were in the terminal region of the short arm of some chromosomes while DAPI(+) binding sites were found mostly in the intercalary region of the chromosomes. The higher divergence in the heterochromatin blocks, as revealed by chromomycin A3 (CMA) binding pattern, in a few taxa, viz. Vigna glabrescens, Vigna khandalensis, and Vigna mungo, suggests that the processes of divergent evolution of repetitive sequences in genomic DNA involve a guanine-cytosine (GC)-rich region. On the contrary, Vigna dalzelliana had shown a prominent adenine-thymine (AT)-rich repetitive DNA sequence in terminal regions in the short arm of chromosomes while Vigna umbellata had shown in interstitial regions. The presence of prominent heterochromatic-rich regions, either GC- or AT-rich regions, does facilitate the rate of chromosomal rearrangements leading to restructuring of the karyotypes and thereby helping the species to attempt structural alterations as means of speciation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anju Shamurailatpam
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, 793022, India
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She CW, Jiang XH, Ou LJ, Liu J, Long KL, Zhang LH, Duan WT, Zhao W, Hu JC. Molecular cytogenetic characterisation and phylogenetic analysis of the seven cultivated Vigna species (Fabaceae). PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2015; 17:268-80. [PMID: 24750425 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The genomic organisation of the seven cultivated Vigna species, V. unguiculata, V. subterranea, V. angularis, V. umbellata, V. radiata, V. mungo and V. aconitifolia, was determined using sequential combined PI and DAPI (CPD) staining and dual-colour fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) with 5S and 45S rDNA probes. For phylogenetic analyses, comparative genomic in situ hybridisation (cGISH) onto somatic chromosomes and sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of 45S rDNA were used. Quantitative karyotypes were established using chromosome measurements, fluorochrome bands and rDNA FISH signals. All species had symmetrical karyotypes composed of only metacentric or metacentric and submetacentric chromosomes. Distinct heterochromatin differentiation was revealed by CPD staining and DAPI counterstaining after FISH. The rDNA sites among all species differed in their number, location and size. cGISH of V. umbellata genomic DNA to the chromosomes of all species produced strong signals in all centromeric regions of V. umbellata and V. angularis, weak signals in all pericentromeric regions of V. aconitifolia, and CPD-banded proximal regions of V. mungo var. mungo. Molecular phylogenetic trees showed that V. angularis and V. umbellata were the closest relatives, and V. mungo and V. aconitifolia were relatively closely related; these species formed a group that was separated from another group comprising V. radiata, V. unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis and V. subterranea. This result was consistent with the phylogenetic relationships inferred from the heterochromatin and cGISH patterns; thus, fluorochrome banding and cGISH are efficient tools for the phylogenetic analysis of Vigna species.
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MESH Headings
- Base Sequence
- Chromosomes, Plant/genetics
- DNA, Plant/chemistry
- DNA, Plant/genetics
- DNA, Ribosomal/chemistry
- DNA, Ribosomal/genetics
- DNA, Ribosomal Spacer/chemistry
- DNA, Ribosomal Spacer/genetics
- Fabaceae/cytology
- Fabaceae/genetics
- Genome, Plant/genetics
- In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence
- Karyotype
- Mitosis/genetics
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Phylogeny
- Plant Leaves/cytology
- Plant Leaves/genetics
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Species Specificity
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Affiliation(s)
- C-W She
- Key Laboratory of Research and Utilization of Ethnomedicinal Plant Resources of Hunan Province, Huaihua University, Huaihua, China; Key Laboratory of Xiangxi Medicinal Plant and Ethnobotany of Hunan Higher Education, Huaihua University, Huaihua, China; Department of Life Sciences, Huaihua University, Huaihua, China
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Almeida C, Pedrosa-Harand A. High macro-collinearity between lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) and the common bean (P. vulgaris L.) as revealed by comparative cytogenetic mapping. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2013; 126:1909-1916. [PMID: 23649647 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-013-2106-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Common bean (P. vulgaris) and lima bean (P. lunatus) are the most important crop species from the genus Phaseolus. Both species have the same chromosome number (2n = 22) and previous cytogenetic mapping of BAC clones suggested conserved synteny. Nevertheless, karyotype differences were observed, suggesting structural rearrangements. In this study, comparative cytogenetic maps for chromosomes 3, 4 and 7 were built and the collinearity between the common bean and lima bean chromosomes was investigated. Thirty-two markers (30 BACs and 2 bacteriophages) from P. vulgaris were hybridized in situ on mitotic chromosomes from P. lunatus. Nine BACs revealed a repetitive DNA pattern with pericentromeric distribution and 23 markers showed unique signals. Nine of these markers were mapped on chromosome 3, eight on chromosome 4 and six on chromosome 7. The order and position of all analyzed BACs were similar between the two species, indicating a high level of macro-collinearity. Thus, although few inversions have probably altered centromere position in other chromosomes, the main karyotypic differences were associated with the repetitive DNA fraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cícero Almeida
- Laboratory of Plant Cytogenetics and Evolution, Department of Botany, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE 50670-420, Brazil
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Isemura T, Kaga A, Tomooka N, Shimizu T, Vaughan DA. The genetics of domestication of rice bean, Vigna umbellata. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2010; 106:927-44. [PMID: 20880934 PMCID: PMC2990660 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcq188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2010] [Revised: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 08/25/2010] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The Asian genus Vigna, to which four cultivated species (rice bean, azuki bean, mung bean and black gram) belong, is suitable for comparative genomics. The aims were to construct a genetic linkage map of rice bean, to identify the genomic regions associated with domestication in rice bean, and to compare these regions with those in azuki bean. METHODS A genetic linkage map was constructed by using simple sequence repeat and amplified fragment length polymorphism markers in the BC(1)F(1) population derived from a cross between cultivated and wild rice bean. Using this map, 31 domestication-related traits were dissected into quantitative trait loci (QTLs). The genetic linkage map and QTLs of rice bean were compared with those of azuki bean. KEY RESULTS A total of 326 markers converged into 11 linkage groups (LGs), corresponding to the haploid number of rice bean chromosomes. The domestication-related traits in rice bean associated with a few major QTLs distributed as clusters on LGs 2, 4 and 7. A high level of co-linearity in marker order between the rice bean and azuki bean linkage maps was observed. Major QTLs in rice bean were found on LG4, whereas major QTLs in azuki bean were found on LG9. CONCLUSIONS This is the first report of a genetic linkage map and QTLs for domestication-related traits in rice bean. The inheritance of domestication-related traits was so simple that a few major QTLs explained the phenotypic variation between cultivated and wild rice bean. The high level of genomic synteny between rice bean and azuki bean facilitates QTL comparison between species. These results provide a genetic foundation for improvement of rice bean; interchange of major QTLs between rice bean and azuki bean might be useful for broadening the genetic variation of both species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takehisa Isemura
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Kannondai 2-1-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
| | - Akito Kaga
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Kannondai 2-1-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
| | - Norihiko Tomooka
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Kannondai 2-1-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
- For correspondence. E-mail
| | - Takehiko Shimizu
- Institute of Society for Techno-Innovation of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Kamiyokoba Ippaizuka 446-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0854, Japan
| | - Duncan Alexander Vaughan
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Kannondai 2-1-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
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Fonsêca A, Ferreira J, dos Santos TRB, Mosiolek M, Bellucci E, Kami J, Gepts P, Geffroy V, Schweizer D, dos Santos KGB, Pedrosa-Harand A. Cytogenetic map of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Chromosome Res 2010; 18:487-502. [PMID: 20449646 PMCID: PMC2886897 DOI: 10.1007/s10577-010-9129-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2010] [Revised: 03/12/2010] [Accepted: 03/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
A cytogenetic map of common bean was built by in situ hybridization of 35 bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) selected with markers mapping to eight linkage groups, plus two plasmids for 5S and 45S ribosomal DNA and one bacteriophage. Together with three previously mapped chromosomes (chromosomes 3, 4, and 7), 43 anchoring points between the genetic map and the cytogenetic map of the species are now available. Furthermore, a subset of four BAC clones was proposed to identify the 11 chromosome pairs of the standard cultivar BAT93. Three of these BACs labelled more than a single chromosome pair, indicating the presence of repetitive DNA in their inserts. A repetitive distribution pattern was observed for most of the BACs; for 38% of them, highly repetitive pericentromeric or subtelomeric signals were observed. These distribution patterns corresponded to pericentromeric and subtelomeric heterochromatin blocks observed with other staining methods. Altogether, the results indicate that around half of the common bean genome is heterochromatic and that genes and repetitive sequences are intermingled in the euchromatin and heterochromatin of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artur Fonsêca
- Laboratory of Plant Cytogenetics, Department of Botany, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE 50670-420 Brazil
| | - Joana Ferreira
- Laboratory of Plant Cytogenetics, Department of Botany, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE 50670-420 Brazil
| | | | - Magdalena Mosiolek
- Department of Chromosome Biology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
- Gregor Mendel Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisa Bellucci
- Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali e delle Produzioni Vegetali, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
- National Institute of Agricultural Botany, Cambridge, CB3 0LE UK
| | - James Kami
- Department of Plant Sciences/MS1, Section of Crop and Ecosystem Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-8780 USA
| | - Paul Gepts
- Department of Plant Sciences/MS1, Section of Crop and Ecosystem Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-8780 USA
| | - Valérie Geffroy
- Institut de Biotechnologie des Plantes, UMR-CNRS 8618, INRA, Université Paris Sud, 91405 Orsay, France
- Unité Mixte de Recherche de Génétique Végétale, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Dieter Schweizer
- Department of Chromosome Biology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
- Gregor Mendel Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Karla G. B. dos Santos
- Laboratory of Plant Cytogenetics, Department of Botany, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE 50670-420 Brazil
| | - Andrea Pedrosa-Harand
- Laboratory of Plant Cytogenetics, Department of Botany, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE 50670-420 Brazil
- Department of Chromosome Biology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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Moscone EA, Klein F, Lambrou M, Fuchs J, Schweizer D. Quantitative karyotyping and dual-color FISH mapping of 5S and 18S-25S rDNA probes in the cultivated Phaseolus species (Leguminosae). Genome 1999; 42:1224-33. [PMID: 10659791 DOI: 10.1139/g99-070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Double-color fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) followed by DAPI counterstaining allowed the chromosomal assignment of 5S and 18S-25S rRNA genes in the four cultivated Phaseolus Species; P. vulgaris, P. coccineus, P. acutifolius, and P. lunatus (all: 2n = 2x = 22). The rRNA gene loci display variation between species as reflected in differences of signal size and (or) number. From one to three pairs of 5S sites and one to seven pairs of 18S-25S sites were found in the diploid complements of the four taxa studied. Intraspecific variation was studied in P. vulgaris, and it is shown that the number of 18S-25S rDNA sites differs between cultivars. Cytogenetic mapping was complemented by karyotype analyses. Each of the four cultivated Phaseolus species exhibits a characteristic heterochromatin endowment, with P. acutifolius var. latifolius having the highest amount of C-band material. Quantitative karyotyping in combination with cytogenetic mapping allowed the identification of homeologous chromosomes in the different species.
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Affiliation(s)
- EA Moscone
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biologia Vegetal, Universidad Nacional de Cordoba, Argentina
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Galasso I, Schmidt T, Pignone D, Heslop-Harrison JS. The molecular cytogenetics of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp: the physical organization and characterization of 18s-5.8s-25s rRNA genes, 5s rRNA genes, telomere-like sequences, and a family of centromeric repetitive DNA sequences. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 1995; 91:928-35. [PMID: 24169979 DOI: 10.1007/bf00223902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/1995] [Accepted: 03/24/1995] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
A knowledge of genome organization is important for understanding how genomes function and evolve, and provide information likely to be useful in plant breeding programmes involving hybridization and genetic manipulation. Molecular techniques, including in situ hybridization, molecular cloning and DNA sequencing, are proving valuable tools to investigate the structure, organization, and diversity of chromosomes in agricultural crops. Heterologous labelled 18 s-5.8 s-25 s (pTa71) and 5 s rDNAs (pTa794) were used for in situ hybridization on Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. chromosomes. Hybridization with 18 s-5.8 s-25 s rRNA gene probes occurred at the same chromosomal sites which were positive to the CMA fluorochrome. Silver staining of nucleolar-organizing regions indicated that all the rDNA sites detected using the 18 s-5.8 s-25 s rRNA gene probe possessed active genes. Degenerate telomeric repeats gave hybridization signals at the telomeres of most chromosomes and no intercalary sites were detected at metaphase; the sequences appear to have no preferential distribution in interphase nuclei. A repetitive DraI family from V. unguiculata was cloned (pVuKB1) and characterized. The DraI repeat is 488 nucleotides long, AT rich (74%), and hybridized on all chromosomes in the centromeric areas. The presence of this sequence family was investigated by Southern hybridization in different Vigna species and other Leguminoseae. It was only detected in V. unguiculata, and hence represents a species-specific DNA sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Galasso
- Istituto del Germoplasma, CNR, Via G. Amendola 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy
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