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Watanabe K, Odahara M, Miyamoto T, Numata K. Fusion Peptide-Based Biomacromolecule Delivery System for Plant Cells. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021; 7:2246-2254. [PMID: 33901395 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The introduction of DNA, RNA, and proteins into plant cells has become important in plant science with the recent development of innovative technologies such as genome editing. As a new method for the delivery of such biomacromolecules, fusion peptides, which have multiple functional domains, have been developed. The functional domains include cell-penetrating peptides for crossing cell membranes, polycationic peptides for biomacromolecule binding, and organelle-targeting peptides. The fusion peptide-based macromolecule delivery system enables the efficient introduction of DNA, RNA, and proteins, which are much larger in size than the peptide, into plant cells while retaining the activity of the biomacromolecules. Compared to pre-existing delivery methods, this system has advantages in that it does not require any special equipment and can be performed easily and quickly on a wide variety of plants. Furthermore, as a characteristic feature of the fusion peptide system, the application of organelle-targeting peptides to fusion peptides allows selective delivery of biomacromolecules to chloroplasts or mitochondria. Here, we provide a representative method of the fusion peptide-based biomacromolecule delivery system and an example of the results of biomacromolecule delivery as promising new tools for plant biology and biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Watanabe
- Biomacromolecule Research Team, Center for Sustainable Resource Science, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Masaki Odahara
- Biomacromolecule Research Team, Center for Sustainable Resource Science, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Takaaki Miyamoto
- Biomacromolecule Research Team, Center for Sustainable Resource Science, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Keiji Numata
- Biomacromolecule Research Team, Center for Sustainable Resource Science, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan.,Department of Material Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto-Daigaku-Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
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Jelly NS, Valat L, Walter B, Maillot P. Transient expression assays in grapevine: a step towards genetic improvement. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2014; 12:1231-45. [PMID: 25431200 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In the past few years, the usefulness of transient expression assays has continuously increased for the characterization of unknown gene function and metabolic pathways. In grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.), one of the most economically important fruit crops in the world, recent systematic sequencing projects produced many gene data sets that require detailed analysis. Due to their rapid nature, transient expression assays are well suited for large-scale genetic studies. Although genes and metabolic pathways of any species can be analysed by transient expression in model plants, a need for homologous systems has emerged to avoid the misinterpretation of results due to a foreign genetic background. Over the last 10 years, various protocols have thus been developed to apply this powerful technology to grapevine. Using cell suspension cultures, somatic embryos, leaves or whole plantlets, transient expression assays enabled the study of the function, regulation and subcellular localization of genes involved in specific metabolic pathways such as the biosynthesis of phenylpropanoids. Disease resistance genes that could be used for marker-assisted selection in conventional breeding or for stable transformation of elite cultivars have also been characterized. Additionally, transient expression assays have proved useful for shaping new tools for grapevine genetic improvement: synthetic promoters, silencing constructs, minimal linear cassettes or viral vectors. This review provides an update on the different tools (DNA constructs, reporter genes, vectors) and methods (Agrobacterium-mediated and direct gene transfer methods) available for transient gene expression in grapevine. The most representative results published thus far are then described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémie S Jelly
- Laboratoire Vigne, Biotechnologies & Environnement-EA 3991, Université de Haute Alsace, Colmar Cedex, France
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Plant cell electrophysiology: Applications in growth enhancement, somatic hybridisation and gene transfer. Biotechnol Adv 2013; 31:1237-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 03/24/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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4
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Physical methods for genetic plant transformation. Phys Life Rev 2012; 9:308-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.plrev.2012.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Vegetables. BIOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY 2010. [PMCID: PMC7121345 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-02391-0_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The conscious promotion of health by an appropriate, balanced diet has become an important social request. Vegetable thereby possesses a special importance due to its high vitamin, mineral and dietary fibre content. Major progress has been made over the past few years in the transformation of vegetables. The expression of several genes has been inhibited by sense gene suppression, and new traits caused by new gene constructs are stably inherited. This chapter reviews advances in various traits such as disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, quality improvement, pharmaceutical and industrial application. Results are presented from most important vegetable families, like Solanaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Liliaceae. Although many research trends in this report are positive, only a few transgenic vegetables have been released from confined into precommercial testing or into use.
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Gilroy S, Hughes W, Trewavas A. The measurement of intracellular calcium levels in protoplasts from higher plant cells. FEBS Lett 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(86)80483-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Takaichi M, Oeda K. Transgenic carrots with enhanced resistance against two major pathogens, Erysiphe heraclei and Alternaria dauci. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2000; 153:135-144. [PMID: 10717319 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-9452(99)00254-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
In vitro assay indicated that the human lysozyme has lytic activity against phytopathogenic fungi and bacteria. A human lysozyme gene was placed under control of the constitutive CaMV 35S promoter and the resulting expression plasmid was introduced into two cultivars (cv.) of carrot, Kurodagosun (K5) and Nantes Scarlet (NS), by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated method. Seven and fourteen transgenic plants of cv. K5 and cv. NS were regenerated, respectively, and the obtained transgenic carrots of T0 generation was tested for disease resistance against Erysiphe heraclei, a pathogenic fungi causing powdery mildew. Among the tested lines, the transgenic plant No. 12-1 and 8-1 of cv. NS showed a fairly strong resistance against E. heraclei. The strong disease resistance was also confirmed in T1 generation. Disease resistance against another pathogen of leaf blight, Alternaria dauci, were also tested using T1 transgenic lines. Significant enhanced resistance was observed in the No. 12-1 of cv. NS. Accumulation of synthesized human lysozyme protein was observed in this line, a finding consistent with observed disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Takaichi
- Biotechnology Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd., 2-1, 4-chome, Takatsukasa, Takarazuka, Hyogo, Japan
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Abstract
Electroporation of cells in the presence of DNA is widely used for the introduction of transgenes either stably or transiently into bacterial, fungal, animal, and plant cells. A review of the literature shows that electroporation parameters are often reported in an incomplete or incorrect manner, forcing researchers to rely too much on a purely empirical trial and error approach. The goal of this article is to provide the reader with an understanding of electrical circuits used in electroporation experiments as well as physical and biological aspects of the electroporation process itself. Further, a simple paradigm is provided which unites all electroporation parameters. This article should be particularly useful to those new to the technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- P F Lurquin
- Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, Washington State University, Pullman 99164-4234, USA
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Physiological and Biochemical Aspects of Somatic Embryogenesis. IN VITRO EMBRYOGENESIS IN PLANTS 1995. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-011-0485-2_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- A Caplan
- Department of Bacteriology and Biochemistry, University of Idaho, Moscow 83843
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Bekkaoui F, Datla RS, Pilon M, Tautorus TE, Crosby WL, Dunstan DI. The effects of promoter on transient expression in conifer cell lines. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 1990; 79:353-359. [PMID: 24226354 DOI: 10.1007/bf01186079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/1989] [Accepted: 11/09/1989] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Protoplasts from suspension cultures of somatic embryos of white spruce (Picea glauca Moench Voss) were electroporated with plasmids containing the chimeric genes for chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT) or β-glucuronidase (GUS), under control of one of three promoters. Transient CAT gene expression of approximately equal magnitude resulted when the CAT gene was fused to either the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter or the nopaline synthase (NOS) promoter. When the CAT gene was fused to a tandem repeat CaMV 35S promoter (pPBI-363), CAT enzyme activity compared to NOS or 35S promoters increased up to eightfold (cell line WS-34), and were up to 100-fold greater than control (electroporated without plasmid). Comparatively, protoplasts of black spruce (Picea mariana Mill) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.), electroporated with pPBI-363, produced increases in CAT activity compared to control of 90-fold and 70-fold, respectively. White spruce (WS-34) protoplasts were subsequently electroporated with the GUS gene fused to the tandem repeat CaMV 35S promoter. Comparatively, GUS enzyme activity increased up to tenfold compared to GUS fused to a CaMV 35S promoter. The results indicated that transient expression of the CAT and GUS genes was influenced by the type of promoter and cell line used, as well as by electroporation conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Bekkaoui
- Plant Biotechnology Institute, 110 Gymnasium Road, S7N OW9, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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Tautorus TE, Bekkaoui F, Pilon M, Datla RS, Crosby WL, Fowke LC, Dunstan DI. Factors affecting transient gene expression in electroporated black spruce (Picea mariana) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana) protoplasts. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 1989; 78:531-536. [PMID: 24225681 DOI: 10.1007/bf00290838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/1989] [Accepted: 05/09/1989] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Methods were developed for transient gene expression in protoplasts of black spruce (Picea mariana) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana). Protoplasts were isolated from embryogenic suspension cultures of black spruce and from non-embryogenic suspensions of jack pine. Using electroporation, transient expression of the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene was assayed and shown to be affected by the cell line used, by voltage, temperature, and by the plasmid concentration and conformation. Increasing the plasmid DNA concentration (0-150μg ml(-1)) resulted in higher levels of transient CAT expression. In jack pine, linearized plasmid gave 2.5 times higher levels of CAT enzyme activity than circular. Optimal voltage varied for each cell line of the two species within the range 200-350 V cm(-1) (960 μF). A heat shock treatment of protoplasts for 5 min at 45 °C resulted in enhanced CAT gene expression for both species.
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Affiliation(s)
- T E Tautorus
- National Research Council, Plant Biotechnology Institute, 110 Gymnasium Road, S7N OW9, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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Planckaert F, Walbot V. Transient gene expression after electroporation of protoplasts derived from embryogenic maize callus. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1989; 8:144-147. [PMID: 24233090 DOI: 10.1007/bf00716827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/1988] [Revised: 03/09/1989] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Protoplasts isolated from embryogenic callus cultures derived from immature embryos ofZea mays L. are suitable for analysis of transient gene expression using electroporation-mediated DNA transfer. Expression of introduced genes is comparable to the levels obtained with protoplasts from Black Mexican Sweet suspension cultures. Two different promoters, that directing synthesis of the 35S RNA of cauliflower mosaic virus and the maizeAdh1 promoter were placed in front of the luciferase reporter gene to assess protoplast gene expression and the impact of an intron on expression level.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Planckaert
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, 94305-5020, Stanford, CA, USA
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Establishment of Barley Cell Suspension Cultures of Mesocotyl Origin Suitable for Isolation of Dividing Protoplasts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0015-3796(89)80168-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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16
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Okada K, Nagata T, Takebe I. Co-electroporation of rice protoplasts with RNAs of cucumber mosaic and tobacco mosaic viruses. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1988; 7:333-336. [PMID: 24241877 DOI: 10.1007/bf00269931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/1988] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) RNA was used to study electroporation conditions suitable for protoplasts from rice suspension cultures. Rice protoplasts required a stronger and shorter electric pulse than tobacco protoplasts for introduction of viral RNA. Under optimized conditions, CMV infection was established in 65 % of electroporated protoplasts. In contrast, electroporation with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) RNA did not result in infection of rice protoplasts. However, when TMV RNA was electroporated into rice protoplasts together with CMV RNA, TMV production was demonstrated in 15 % of protoplasts. Differential staining with fluorescent antibodies against the two viruses showed that the protoplasts producing TMV were without exception also infected by CMV. The results show that CMV replicates in rice protoplasts by itself, whereas TMV does so only with the aid of CMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Okada
- National Institute for Basic Biology, 38 Nishigonaka, Myodaiji-cho, 444, Okazaki, Japan
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17
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Lindsey K, Jones MG. The permeability of electroporated cells and protoplasts of sugar beet. PLANTA 1987; 172:346-355. [PMID: 24225918 DOI: 10.1007/bf00398663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/1987] [Accepted: 06/26/1987] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A simple method has been developed to determine the changes in permeability of protoplasts and intact cells when electroporated. Cells and protoplasts of sugar beet, Beta vulgaris L., were subjected to electric pulse treatments of different field strengths, pulse number and pulse duration, and the ability to accumulate and retain the hydrophilic dye phenosafranine was determined spectrophotometrically. Results of timecourse studies of phenosafranine accumulation and retention indicated that pores are formed or enlarged rapidly in the plasmamembrane and remain permeable to phenosafranine for relatively long periods; the half-life of the 'pores" was temperaturedependent. Both cells and protoplasts retained the highest levels of phenosafranine when supplied with a series of five rectangular pulses of 50 μs duration and of field strength 2500 V·cm(-1). If these parameters were exceeded, The phenosafranine content was reduced, concomitant with a decline in viability as indicated by fluorescein-diacetate staining, indicating the loss of the integrity of the plasmamembrane. The pattern of accumulation and retention by protoplasts of radioactivity from [(3)H]pABD1, a modified bacterial plasmid, was similar to that of phenosafranine, but uptake of the plasmid by cells was not demonstrated. The mothod can be used to determine conditions for the optimum permeabilization of protoplasts for direct gene transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Lindsey
- Department of Biochemistry, Rothamsted Experimental Station, AFRC Institute of Arable Crops Research, AL5 2JQ, Harpenden, Herts, UK
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Hauptmann RM, Ozias-Akins P, Vasil V, Tabaeizadeh Z, Rogers SG, Horsch RB, Vasil IK, Fraley RT. Transient expression of electroporated DNA in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous species. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1987; 6:265-70. [PMID: 24248756 DOI: 10.1007/bf00271995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/1987] [Revised: 05/14/1987] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Transient expression of electroporated DNA was monitored in protoplasts of several monocot and dicot species by assaying for expression of chimeric chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene constructions. Expression was obtained in the dicot species of Daucus carota, Glycine max and Petunia hybrida and the monocot species of Triticum monococcum, Pennisetum purpureum, Panicum maximum, Saccharum officinarum, and a double cross, trispecific hybrid between Pennisetum purpureum, P. americanum, and P. squamulatum. Recovery and viability of protoplasts after electroporation decreased with increasing voltages and capacitance while CAT activity increased up to a critical combination of voltage and capacitance beyond which the activity dramatically decreased. The optimal compromise between DNA uptake and expression versus cell survival was determined for D. carota and applied successfully to the other species. Maximum transient expression occurred 36 hours after electroporation of D. carota. The potential for using this procedure to rapidly assay gene function in dicot and monocot cells and application of this technique to obtain transformed cereals is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Hauptmann
- Department of Botany, University of Florida, 32611, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Guerche P, Bellini C, Le Moullec JM, Caboche M. Use of a transient expression assay for the optimization of direct gene transfer into tobacco mesophyll protoplasts by electroporation. Biochimie 1987; 69:621-8. [PMID: 3120796 DOI: 10.1016/0300-9084(87)90181-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Plasmid DNA was transfected into tobacco mesophyll protoplasts by electroporation. Transfection efficiency was estimated, using a transient expression assay based on the measurement of chloramphenicol transacetylase activity or by scoring colonies expressing resistance to paromomycin, an aminoglycoside related to kanamycin. Under conditions of cell survival superior to 50% after electroporation, transient expression signals and transformation efficiencies were found to be proportional. Factors affecting the efficiency of transformation were studied. A clear-cut optimum voltage (250-300 V/cm) was detected. Among various salts tested, potassium chloride was the best electrolyte. No improvement of electroporation efficiency was obtained by a heat-shock (45 degrees C/5 min) treatment prior to electroporation or by the presence of polyethylene glycol in the electroporation medium. The physiological state of plants used as the protoplast source significantly affected the transfection ability of the resulting protoplasts. These results are discussed and compared to previously published procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Guerche
- Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire, INRA, Versailles, France
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Nishiguchi M, Sato T, Motoyoshi F. An improved method for electroporation in plant protoplasts: infection of tobacco protoplasts by tobacco mosaic virus particles. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1987; 6:90-93. [PMID: 24248484 DOI: 10.1007/bf00276660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/1986] [Revised: 12/12/1986] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Conditions of electroporation were optimized for introduction of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) particles into tobacco mesophyll protoplasts (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. Petit Havana SR1). Compared with conditions for TMV-RNA uptake, a longer electric pulse was necessary at the same voltage to induce TMV particle entry. Up to 80-90% of the protoplasts were infected with TMV particles after exposure to a 10 msec pulse at 200 V (0.67 KV/cm) in a 0.5 M mannitol solution. Protoplast viability was slightly lower than for controls which did not undergo electroporation. The presence of buffer in the mannitol solution reduced the net voltage in the solution which resulted in a significant decrease of the level of infection. These results suggest that the membrane pores resulting from an electrical pulse were wide enough for TMV particles (300 × 18 nm) to enter protoplasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nishiguchi
- National Institute of Agrobiological Resources, Tsukuba Science City, Yatabe, 305, Ibaraki, Japan
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[19] Direct gene transfer to protoplasts of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants by a number of methods, including electroporation. Methods Enzymol 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/0076-6879(87)53062-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Lurquin PF. Foreign gene expression in plant cells. PROGRESS IN NUCLEIC ACID RESEARCH AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1987; 34:143-88. [PMID: 3326039 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6603(08)60495-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Langridge WH, Li BJ, Szalay AA. Uptake of DNA and RNA into cells mediated by electroporation. Methods Enzymol 1987; 153:336-50. [PMID: 2448582 DOI: 10.1016/0076-6879(87)53063-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Mischke S, Saunders JA, Owens L. A versatile low-cost apparatus for cell electrofusion and other electrophysiological treatments. JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMICAL AND BIOPHYSICAL METHODS 1986; 13:65-75. [PMID: 3772024 DOI: 10.1016/0165-022x(86)90018-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Instrumentation is described which will generate AC fields and DC square pulses for cell electrofusion, electroporation and other electrophysiological experiments. The equipment can generate a constant or intermittent AC field and a single square pulse, either alone or in combination. It can also generate a train of intermittent square pulses. The components for the instrumentation are commercially available and can be assembled by persons with little or no training in electronics. A design is given for a mass treatment chamber that can be easily constructed and viewed with a microscope.
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