Characterization of two beta-tubulin genes from Geotrichum candidum

Molecular evolution and functional divergence of tubulin superfamily in the fungal tree of life

Microtubules are essential for various cellular activities and β-tubulins are the target of benzimidazole fungicides. However, the evolution and molecular mechanisms driving functional diversification in fungal tubulins are not clear. In this study, we systematically identified tubulin genes from 59 representative fungi across the fungal kingdom. Phylogenetic analysis showed that α-/β-tubulin genes underwent multiple independent duplications and losses in different fungal lineages and formed distinct paralogous/orthologous clades. The last common ancestor of basidiomycetes and ascomycetes likely possessed two paralogs of α-tubulin (α₁/α₂) and β-tubulin (β₁/β₂) genes but α₂-tubulin genes were lost in basidiomycetes and β₂-tubulin genes were lost in most ascomycetes. Molecular evolutionary analysis indicated that α₁, α₂, and β₂-tubulins have been under strong divergent selection and adaptive positive selection. Many positively selected sites are at or adjacent to important functional sites and likely contribute to functional diversification. We further experimentally confirmed functional divergence of two β-tubulins in Fusarium and identified type II variations in FgTub2 responsible for function shifts. In this study, we also identified δ-/ε-/η-tubulins in Chytridiomycetes. Overall, our results illustrated that different evolutionary mechanisms drive functional diversification of α-/β-tubulin genes in different fungal lineages, and residues under positive selection could provide targets for further experimental study.

Stability of transgenes in trees: expression of two reporter genes in poplar over three field seasons

High stability of transgene expression is essential for functional genomics studies using transformation approaches and for application of genetic engineering to commercial forestry. We quantified expression of two reporter genes, green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the herbicide bialaphos resistance gene (BAR), in 2256 transgenic poplar trees derived from 404 primary events, and in 106 in vitro-redifferentiated subevents, over 3 years in the greenhouse and in the field. No gene silencing (complete breakdown of expression) was observed for GFP or BAR expression in any of the primary transgenic events during the course of the study. Transgenic cassettes were physically eliminated in four subevents (2.5%) derived from three different primary events during re-organogenesis. Transgene copy number was positively correlated with transgene expression level; however, a majority of transformants (85%) carried single-copy transgenes. About one-third of the events containing two-copy inserts had repeats formed at the same chromosomal position, with direct repeats being the main type observed (87%). All events containing more than two transgene copies showed repeat formation at least at one locus, with direct repeats again dominant (77%). Loci with two direct repeats had substantially greater transgene expression level than other types of two-copy T-DNA configurations, but insert organization was not associated with stability of transgene expression. Use of the poplar rbcS promoter, which drove BAR in the transgenic constructs, had no adverse effect on transgene expression levels or stability compared with the heterologous CaMV 35S promoter, which directed GFP expression.

Multi-gene phylogenies indicate ascomal wall morphology is a better predictor of phylogenetic relationships than ascospore morphology in the Sordariales (Ascomycota, Fungi)

Ascospore characters have commonly been used for distinguishing ascomycete taxa, while ascomal wall characters have received little attention. Although taxa in the Sordariales possess a wide range of variation in their ascomal walls and ascospores, genera have traditionally been delimited based on differences in their ascospore morphology. Phylogenetic relationships of multiple representatives from each of several genera representing the range in ascomal wall and ascospore morphologies in the Sordariales were estimated using partial nuclear DNA sequences from the 28S ribosomal large subunit (LSU), beta-tubulin, and ribosomal polymerase II subunit 2 (RPB2) genes. These genes also were compared for their utility in predicting phylogenetic relationships in this group of fungi. Maximum parsimony and Bayesian analyses conducted on separate and combined data sets indicate that ascospore morphology is extremely homoplastic and not useful for delimiting genera. Genera represented by more than one species were paraphyletic or polyphyletic in nearly all analyses; 17 species of Cercophora segregated into at least nine different clades, while six species of Podospora occurred in five clades in the LSU tree. However, taxa with similar ascomal wall morphologies clustered in five well-supported clades suggesting that ascomal wall morphology is a better indicator of generic relationships in certain clades in the Sordariales. The RPB2 gene possessed over twice the number of parsimony-informative characters than either the LSU or beta-tubulin gene and consequently, provided the most support for the greatest number of clades.

The Ustilaginales as plant pests and model systems

The Ustilaginales are a vast and diverse group of fungi, which includes the plant pathogenic smuts that cause significant losses to crops worldwide. Members of the Ustilaginales are also valuable models for the unraveling of fundamental mechanisms controlling important biological processes. Ustilago maydis is an important fungal model system and has been well studied with regard to mating, morphogenesis, pathogenicity, signal transduction, mycoviruses, DNA recombination, and, recently, genomics. In this review we discuss the life cycles of members of the Ustilaginales and provide background on their economic impact as agricultural pests. We then focus on providing a summary of the literature with special attention to topics not well covered in recent reviews such as the use of U. maydis in mycovirus research and as a model for understanding the molecular mechanisms of fungicide resistance and DNA recombination and repair.

Multiple forms of tubulin: different gene products and covalent modifications

Tubulin, the subunit protein of microtubules, is an alpha/beta heterodimer. In many organisms, both alpha and beta exist in numerous isotypic forms encoded by different genes. In addition, both alpha and beta undergo a variety of posttranslational covalent modifications, including acetylation, phosphorylation, detyrosylation, polyglutamylation, and polyglycylation. In this review the distribution and possible functional significance of the various forms of tubulin are discussed. In analyzing the differences among tubulin isotypes encoded by different genes, some appear to have no functional significance, some increase the overall adaptability of the organism to environmental challenges, and some appear to perform specific functions including formation of particular organelles and interactions with specific proteins. Purified isotypes also display different properties in vitro. Although the significance of all the covalent modification of tubulin is not fully understood, some of them may influence the stability of modified microtubules in vivo as well as interactions with certain proteins and may help to determine the functional role of microtubules in the cell. The review also discusses isotypes of gamma-tubulin and puts various forms of tubulin in an evolutionary context.

Three selectable markers for transformation of Ustilago maydis

Although Ustilago maydis is readily amenable to molecular genetic experimentation, few antibiotic-resistance markers are available for DNA-mediated transformation. This poses constraints on experiments involving targeted gene disruption and complementation. To address this problem, we constructed vectors using one of three additional genes as dominant selectable markers for transformation. Two genes, sat-1 (encoding streptothricin acetyltransferase) and Sh-ble (encoding a phleomycin-resistance polypeptide), are of bacterial origin and have been engineered for expression in Ustilago sp. The third gene encodes an allele of U. maydis beta-tubulin that confers resistance to the fungicide benomyl.

Disruption of two genes for chitin synthase in the phytopathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis

The phytopathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis exhibits a dimorphic transition in which non-pathogenic, yeast-like cells mate to form a pathogenic, filamentous dikaryon. Northern analysis indicated that two chitin synthase genes, chs1 and chs2, from U. maydis are expressed at similar levels in yeast-like cells and in cells undergoing the mating reaction leading to the filamentous cell type. A mutation was constructed in each of the chitin synthase genes by targeted gene disruption. Each mutant showed a reduction in the level of trypsin-activated enzyme activity, compared with a wild-type strain, but retained the wild-type morphology, the ability to mate and the ability to form the filamentous pathogenic cell type.

Molecular analysis of the Septoria nodorum beta-tubulin gene and characterization of a benomyl-resistance mutation

The complete nucleotide sequence of a benomyl-resistant allele of the Septoria nodorum beta-tubulin gene (tubAR) has been determined including 745 and 1024 nucleotides 5' and 3' to the tubAR coding region, respectively. tubAR encodes a 447 amino acid polypeptide which shows a high degree of homology with other fungal beta-tubulins. The gene contains three introns at codons 4, 12 and 53, uses 48 of the possible 61 sense codons and has a GC content of 59.1% in its coding region. S1 nuclease mapping has identified two transcriptional start sites 80 bp and 83 bp upstream of the translation start, and a transcriptional termination site 192 bp downstream of the stop codon. The two transcriptional start sites lie just 8 bp and 5 bp downstream of a CT motif consisting of 18 pyrimidine nucleotides interrupted by a single adenine. The wild-type allele tubA+ has been cloned using the polymerase chain reaction and the mutation producing the benomyl-resistant phenotype of tubAR mapped to a C to T transition at the first position of codon 6, resulting in a histidine to tyrosine amino acid substitution.

Cloning, sequence and expression of a beta-tubulin-encoding gene in the homobasidiomycete Schizophyllum commune

The beta-tubulin (beta Tub)-encoding gene (tub-2) of Schizophyllum commune is the first tubulin gene isolated, cloned and sequenced from higher filamentous fungi (homobasidiomycetes). The S. commune tub-2 gene is organized into nine exons and eight introns. The introns vary from 48 to 107 nt in length, and are distributed throughout the gene. The tub-2 exons code for a protein of 445 amino acids (aa), which shows great homology with beta Tubs of filamentous ascomycetes, plants, and animals, but less homology with yeasts. The codon usage of tub-2 from S. commune is biased, as it is in most beta Tub-encoding genes of filamentous fungi. The S. commune beta Tub shows a conserved aa sequence in the C-terminal domain, which is suggested to interact with microtubule-associated proteins in animals. In contrast, the S. commune beta Tub deviates from most known beta Tubs by having a Cys165 residue, which might be significant for the insensitivity of S. commune haploid strains to the antimicrotubule drug, benomyl. In tub-2 of different haploid strains, sequence polymorphisms occur in the 5' and 3' flanking regions. The expression of tub-2 is high in young mycelium, which has a high number of extending apical cells, but decreases with the aging of the mycelium. No significant difference in the hybridization signal intensity for the tub-2 transcripts was recorded either during intercellular nuclear migration at early mating, or in mycelia with a mutation in the B mating-type gene.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)