Anther development and the orientation of the interchange quadrivalent in pearl millet

Orientation and segregation of a micromanipulated multivalent: familiar principles, divergent outcomes

We studied the orientation and segregation of a particular quadrivalent in living grasshopper spermatocytes. Quadrivalents were detached from the spindle by micromanipulation, then placed and bent as desired. The detached quadrivalents reattach and orient on the spindle. Their orientation is determined by the same principles that apply to ordinary chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis, but the outcome is different. Certain characteristics of the quadrivalent lead to a variety of orientations rather than the single one typical of ordinary chromosomes. Two kinetochores in the quadrivalent are linked to the others by unusually long, flexible chromosome arms. These kinetochores may face either the same pole or opposite poles and tend to orient initially to the pole toward which they face. Consequently, the initial orientation of the flexibly linked kinetochores is variable, and, moreover, they frequently reorient. In contrast, the other two kinetochores are as rigidly connected as those in a small bivalent and so display the typical back-to-back arrangement. Usually, this arrangement leads quickly to a stable orientation of the two kinetochores to opposite poles. Sometimes, however, the back-to-back arrangement changes to a side-by-side arrangement so that the orientation of both kinetochores to the same pole is favored. The combined effect of this diverse behavior is that the quadrivalent has four stable orientations, each leading to a different distribution of chromosomes in anaphase. The result is genetic chaos. Ironically, this chaos is produced by the same mechanisms that, in ordinary bivalents and mitotic chromosomes, produce a single stable orientation and genetically appropriate chromosome distribution.