Structure and evolution of myxomycete nuclear group I introns: a model for horizontal transfer by intron homing

A Phylogenetic Approach to Structural Variation in Organization of Nuclear Group I Introns and Their Ribozymes

Nuclear group I introns are restricted to the ribosomal DNA locus where they interrupt genes for small subunit and large subunit ribosomal RNAs at conserved sites in some eukaryotic microorganisms. Here, the myxomycete protists are a frequent source of nuclear group I introns due to their unique life strategy and a billion years of separate evolution. The ribosomal DNA of the myxomycete Mucilago crustacea was investigated and found to contain seven group I introns, including a direct repeat-containing intron at insertion site S1389 in the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene. We collected, analyzed, and compared 72 S1389 group IC1 introns representing diverse myxomycete taxa. The consensus secondary structure revealed a conserved ribozyme core, but with surprising sequence variations in the guanosine binding site in segment P7. Some S1389 introns harbored large extension sequences in the peripheral region of segment P9 containing direct repeat arrays. These repeats contained up to 52 copies of a putative internal guide sequence motif. Other S1389 introns harbored homing endonuclease genes in segment P1 encoding His-Cys proteins. Homing endonuclease genes were further interrupted by small spliceosomal introns that have to be removed in order to generate the open reading frames. Phylogenetic analyses of S1389 intron and host gene indicated both vertical and horizontal intron transfer during evolution, and revealed sporadic appearances of direct repeats, homing endonuclease genes, and guanosine binding site variants among the myxomycete taxa.

Evolution of group I introns in Porifera: new evidence for intron mobility and implications for DNA barcoding

BACKGROUND

Mitochondrial introns intermit coding regions of genes and feature characteristic secondary structures and splicing mechanisms. In metazoans, mitochondrial introns have only been detected in sponges, cnidarians, placozoans and one annelid species. Within demosponges, group I and group II introns are present in six families. Based on different insertion sites within the cox1 gene and secondary structures, four types of group I and two types of group II introns are known, which can harbor up to three encoding homing endonuclease genes (HEG) of the LAGLIDADG family (group I) and/or reverse transcriptase (group II). However, only little is known about sponge intron mobility, transmission, and origin due to the lack of a comprehensive dataset. We analyzed the largest dataset on sponge mitochondrial group I introns to date: 95 specimens, from 11 different sponge genera which provided novel insights into the evolution of group I introns.

RESULTS

For the first time group I introns were detected in four genera of the sponge family Scleritodermidae (Scleritoderma, Microscleroderma, Aciculites, Setidium). We demonstrated that group I introns in sponges aggregate in the most conserved regions of cox1. We showed that co-occurrence of two introns in cox1 is unique among metazoans, but not uncommon in sponges. However, this combination always associates an active intron with a degenerating one. Earlier hypotheses of HGT were confirmed and for the first time VGT and secondary losses of introns conclusively demonstrated.

CONCLUSION

This study validates the subclass Spirophorina (Tetractinellida) as an intron hotspot in sponges. Our analyses confirm that most sponge group I introns probably originated from fungi. DNA barcoding is discussed and the application of alternative primers suggested.

Nuclear group I introns in self-splicing and beyond

Group I introns are a distinct class of RNA self-splicing introns with an ancient origin. All known group I introns present in eukaryote nuclei interrupt functional ribosomal RNA genes located in ribosomal DNA loci. The discovery of the Tetrahymena intron more than 30 years ago has been essential to our understanding of group I intron catalysis, higher-order RNA structure, and RNA folding, but other intron models have provided information about the biological role. Nuclear group I introns appear widespread among eukaryotic microorganisms, and the plasmodial slime molds (myxomycetes) contain an abundance of self-splicing introns. Here, we summarize the main conclusions from previous work on the Tetrahymena intron on RNA self-splicing catalysis as well as more recent work on myxomycete intron biology. Group I introns in myxomycetes that represent different evolutionary stages, biological roles, and functional settings are discussed.

Polyphyletic origin of the genus Physarum (Physarales, Myxomycetes) revealed by nuclear rDNA mini-chromosome analysis and group I intron synapomorphy

Background

Physarales represents the largest taxonomic order among the plasmodial slime molds (myxomycetes). Physarales is of particular interest since the two best-studied myxomycete species, Physarum polycephalum and Didymium iridis, belong to this order and are currently subjected to whole genome and transcriptome analyses. Here we report molecular phylogeny based on ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequences that includes 57 Physarales isolates.

Results

The Physarales nuclear rDNA sequences were found to be loaded with 222 autocatalytic group I introns, which may complicate correct alignments and subsequent phylogenetic tree constructions. Phylogenetic analysis of rDNA sequences depleted of introns confirmed monophyly of the Physarales families Didymiaceae and Physaraceae. Whereas good correlation was noted between phylogeny and taxonomy among the Didymiaceae isolates, significant deviations were seen in Physaraceae. The largest genus, Physarum, was found to be polyphyletic consisting of at least three well supported clades. A synapomorphy, located at the highly conserved G-binding site of L2449 group I intron ribozymes further supported the Physarum clades.

Conclusions

Our results provide molecular relationship of Physarales genera, species, and isolates. This information is important in further interpretations of comparative genomics nd transcriptomics. In addition, the result supports a polyphyletic origin of the genus Physarum and calls for a reevaluation of current taxonomy.

Occurrence and characteristics of group 1 introns found at three different positions within the 28S ribosomal RNA gene of the dematiaceous Phialophora verrucosa: phylogenetic and secondary structural implications

BACKGROUND

Group 1 introns (ribozymes) are among the most ancient and have the broadest phylogenetic distribution among the known self-splicing ribozymes. Fungi are known to be rich in rDNA group 1 introns. In the present study, five sequences of the 28S ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) regions of pathogenic dematiaceous Phialophora verrucosa were analyzed using PCR by site-specific primers and were found to have three insertions, termed intron-F, G and H, at three positions of the gene. We investigated the distribution of group 1 introns in this fungus by surveying 34 strains of P. verrucosa and seven strains of Phialophora americana as the allied species.

RESULTS

Intron-F's (inserted at L798 position) were found in 88% of P. verrucosa strains, while intron-G's (inserted at L1921) at 12% and intron-H's (inserted at L2563) at 18%. There was some correlation between intron distribution and geographic location. In addition, we confirmed that the three kinds of introns are group 1 introns from results of BLAST search, alignment analysis and Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR). Prediction of secondary structures and phylogenetic analysis of intron sequences identified introns-F and G as belonging to subgroup IC1. In addition, intron-H was identified as IE.

CONCLUSION

The three intron insertions and their insertion position in the 28S rDNA allowed the characterization of the clinical and environmental isolates of P. verrucosa and P. americana into five genotypes. All subgroups of introns-F and G and intron-H were characterized and observed for the first time in both species.

The molecular evolution and structural organization of group I introns at position 1389 in nuclear small subunit rDNA of myxomycetes

The number of nuclear group I introns from myxomycetes is rapidly increasing in GenBank as more rDNA sequences from these organisms are being sequenced. They represent an interesting and complex group of intervening sequences because several introns are mobile (or inferred to be mobile) and many contain large and unusual insertions in peripheral loops. Here we describe related group I introns at position 1389 in the small subunit rDNA of representatives from the myxomycete family Didymiaceae. Phylogenetic analyses support a common origin and mainly vertical inheritance of the intron. All S1389 introns from the Didymiaceae belong to the IC1 subclass of nuclear group I introns. The central catalytic core region of about 100 nt appears divergent in sequence composition even though the introns reside in closely related species. Furthermore, unlike the majority of group I introns from myxomycetes the S1389 introns do not self-splice as naked RNA in vitro under standard conditions, consistent with a dependence on host factors for folding or activity. Finally, the myxomycete S1389 introns are exclusively found within the family Didymiaceae, which suggests that this group I intron was acquired after the split between the families Didymiaceae and Physaraceae.

Evolution of Pleopsidium (Lichenized Ascomycota) S943 Group I Introns and the Phylogeography of an Intron-Encoded Putative Homing Endonuclease

The sporadic distribution of nuclear group I introns among different fungal lineages can be explained by vertical inheritance of the introns followed by successive losses, or horizontal transfers from one lineage to another through intron homing or reverse splicing. Homing is mediated by an intron-encoded homing endonuclease (HE) and recent studies suggest that the introns and their associated HE gene (HEG) follow a recurrent cyclical model of invasion, degeneration, loss, and reinvasion. The purpose of this study was to compare this model to the evolution of HEGs found in the group I intron at position S943 of the nuclear ribosomal DNA of the lichen-forming fungus Pleopsidium. Forty-eight S943 introns were found in the 64 Pleopsidium samples from a worldwide screen, 22 of which contained a full-length HEG that encodes a putative 256-amino acid HE, and 2 contained HE pseudogenes. The HEGs are divided into two closely related types (as are the introns that encode them) that differ by 22.6% in their nucleotide sequences. The evolution of the Pleopsidium intron-HEG element shows strong evidence for a cyclical model of evolution. The intron was likely acquired twice in the genus and then transmitted via two or three interspecific horizontal transfers. Close geographical proximity plays an important role in intron-HEG horizontal transfer because most of these mobile elements were found in Europe. Once acquired in a lineage, the intron-HEG element was also vertically transmitted, and occasionally degenerated or was lost.

Multiple group I introns detected in the nuclear small subunit rDNA of the autosporic green alga Selenastrum capricornutum

A phylogenetic investigation of the autosporic chlorophycean alga species Selenastrum capricornutum using the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene revealed the unusual presence of six group IC1 introns. Previous studies showed that numerous green algal taxa contain group IC1 introns. However, whereas some algal species harbor multiple introns in a single ribosomal gene, none have contained as many as S. capricornutum. Three of the S. capricornutum introns are located at conserved algal intron sites and the remaining three are located at novel eukaryotic positions. The SSU rRNA genes and their introns have been sequenced and putative secondary structures are proposed for the introns. Also, their similarity to other group IC1 introns from algal, fungal, and viral sources is investigated. Results suggest the initial presence of introns at conserved locations, followed by duplication and insertion to novel positions within the SSU rRNA gene.

The molecular evolution and structural organization of self-splicing group I introns at position 516 in nuclear SSU rDNA of myxomycetes

Group I introns are relatively common within nuclear ribosomal DNA of eukaryotic microorganisms, especially in myxomycetes. Introns at position S516 in the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene are particularly common, but have a sporadic occurrence in myxomycetes. Fuligo septica, Badhamia gracilis, and Physarum flavicomum, all members of the family Physaraceae, contain related group IC1 introns at this site. The F. septica intron was studied at the molecular level and found to self-splice as naked RNA and to generate full-length intron RNA circles during incubation. Group I introns at position S516 appear to have a particularly widespread distribution among protists and fungi. Secondary structural analysis of more than 140 S516 group I introns available in the database revealed five different types of organization, including IC1 introns with and without His-Cys homing endonuclease genes, complex twin-ribozyme introns, IE introns, and degenerate group I-like introns. Both intron structural and phylogenetic analyses indicate a multiple origin of the S516 introns during evolution. The myxomycete introns are related to S516 introns in the more distantly related brown algae and Acanthamoeba species. Possible mechanisms of intron transfer both at the RNA- and DNA-levels are discussed in order to explain the observed widespread, but scattered, phylogenetic distribution.

Twelve Group I introns in the same pre-rRNA transcript of the myxomycete Fuligo septica: RNA processing and evolution

The ribosomal DNA region of the myxomycete Fuligo septica was investigated and found to contain 12 group I introns (four in the small subunit and eight in the large subunit ribosomal RNAs). We have performed molecular and phylogenetic analyses to provide insight into intron structure and function, intron-host biology, and intron origin and evolution. The introns vary in size from 398 to 943 nt, all lacking detectable open reading frames. Secondary structure models revealed considerable structural diversity, but all, except one (subclass IB), represent the common group IC1 intron subclass. In vitro splicing analysis revealed that 10 of the 12 introns were able to self-splice as naked RNA, but all 12 introns were able to splice out from the precursor rRNA in vivo as evaluated by reverse transcription PCR analysis on total F. septica RNA. Furthermore, RNA processing analyses in vitro and in vivo showed that 10 of 12 introns perform hydrolytic cleavage at the 3' splice site, as well as intron circularization. Full-length intron RNA circles were detected in vivo. The order of splicing was analyzed by a reverse transcription PCR approach on cellular RNA, but no strict order of intron excision could be detected. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that most Fuligo introns were distantly related to each other and were independently gained in ribosomal DNA during evolution.

Nuclear large subunit rDNA group I intron distribution in a population of Beauveria bassiana strains: phylogenetic implications

Four group I introns, designated Bb1, Bb2, Bb3 and Bb4, were identified in the entomopathogenic hyphomycete Beauveria bassiana. Sequence analyses of these introns verified that they were invariably inserted at specific target sequences after conserved positions Ec2563, Ec2449, Ec2066 and Ec1921 of the large nuclear subunit (LSU) rDNA 3'-end. Secondary structure modelling confirmed that Bb1 and Bb3 belonged to subgroup IE while Bb2 and Bb4 belonged to subgroup IC1. Intron presence, distribution and size-variation were studied in a population of 125 B. bassiana strains using site-specific primers. Nucleotide sequences and secondary structures were compared and showed considerable variations usually at P1, P6 and P9 helices, but concomitantly, high homology between members of the same site-specific group. Intron distribution studies revealed that few (7.2%) strains were intron-less, most contained one (28%), two (48%) or three (16%) introns, while only one strain contained all four introns. Bb4-like introns (Ec1921) were the most abundant (86.4%), whereas the other three introns were evenly represented (ca 30%) in the B. bassiana population. Analysis of intron genotype distribution indicated a tenuous dependence upon geographic origin or insect host species. Phylogenetic analysis of all B. bassiana LSU introns and their close relatives from other entomopathogenic fungi showed a strong correlation between specific insertion sites and intron subgroups, fully supported by corresponding clades, suggesting common ancestry of the site specific LSU introns.

The group I-like ribozyme DiGIR1 mediates alternative processing of pre-rRNA transcripts in Didymium iridis

During starvation induced encystment, cells of the myxomycete Didymium iridis accumulate a 7.5-kb RNA that is the result of alternative processing of pre-rRNA. The 5' end corresponds to an internal processing site cleaved by the group I-like ribozyme DiGIR1, located within the twin-ribozyme intron Dir.S956-1. The RNA retains the majority of Dir.S956-1 including the homing endonuclease gene and a small spliceosomal intron, the internal transcribed spacers ITS1 and ITS2, and the large subunit rRNA lacking its two group I introns. The formation of this RNA implies cleavage by DiGIR1 in a new RNA context, and presents a new example of the cost to the host of intron load. This is because the formation of the 7.5-kb RNA is incompatible with the formation of functional ribosomal RNA from the same transcript. In the formation of the 7.5-kb RNA, DiGIR1 catalysed cleavage takes place without prior splicing performed by DiGIR2. This contrasts with the processing order leading to mature rRNA and I-DirI mRNA in growing cells, suggesting an interplay between the two ribozymes of a twin-ribozyme intron.

DiGIR1 and NaGIR1: naturally occurring group I-like ribozymes with unique core organization and evolved biological role

The group I-like ribozyme GIR1 is a unique example of a naturally occurring ribozyme with an evolved biological function. GIR1 generates the 5'-end of a nucleolar encoded messenger RNA involved in intron mobility. GIR1 is found as a cis-cleaving ribozyme within two very different rDNA group I introns (twin-ribozyme introns) in distantly related organisms. The Didymium GIR1 (DiGIR1) and Naegleria GIR1 (NaGIR1) share fundamental features in structural organization and reactivity, and display significant differences when compared to the related group I splicing ribozymes. GIR1 lacks the characteristic P1 segment present in all group I splicing ribozymes, it has a novel core organization, and it catalyses two site-specific hydrolytic cleavages rather than splicing. DiGIR1 and NaGIR1 appear to have originated from eubacterial group I introns in order to fulfil a common biological challenge: the expression of a protein encoding gene in a nucleolar context.

The phylogenetic position of the pelobiont Mastigamoeba balamuthi based on sequences of rDNA and translation elongation factors EF-1alpha and EF-2

The taxonomic position and phylogenetic relationships of the Pelobionta, an amitochondriate amoeboflagellate group, are not yet completely settled. To provide more information, we obtained sequences for the large subunit rDNA gene, the gene for translation elongation factor 1alpha, and for a large part of the gene encoding translation elongation factor 2 from a representative of this group, Mastigamoeba balamuthi (formerly Phreatamoeba balamuthi). The gene for the large subunit rDNA was unusually large compared to those of other protists, a phenomenon that had previously been observed for the gene encoding the small subunit rDNA. Phylogenetic reconstruction using a maximum likelihood method was performed with these sequences, as well as the gene encoding the small subunit rDNA. When evaluated individually, the M. balamuthi genes for the small and large subunit rDNAs and elongation factor 1alpha had a most recent common ancestor with either the Mycetozoa (slime molds) or with Entamoeba histolytica. A clade formed by M. balamuthi, E. histolytica, and Mycetozoa was not rejected statistically for any of the sequences. A combined maximum likelihood analysis using 3,935 positions from all molecules suggested that these three taxonomic units form a robust clade. We were unable to resolve the closest group to this clade using the combined analysis. These findings support the notion, which had previously been proposed primarily on cytological evidence, that both M. balamuthi and E. histolytica are closely related to the Mycetozoa and that these three together represent a major eukaryotic lineage.

Group I twintrons: genetic elements in myxomycete and schizopyrenid amoeboflagellate ribosomal DNAs

Protists are unicellular eukaryotes which represent a significant fraction of the global biodiversity. The myxomycete Didymium and the schizopyrenid amoeboflagellate Naegleria are distantly related protists. However, we have noted several striking similarities in life cycle, cell morphology, and ribosomal DNA organization between these organisms. Both have multicopy nuclear extrachromosomal ribosomal DNAs. Here the small subunit ribosomal RNA genes are interrupted by an optional group I twintron, a novel category among the group I introns. Group I twintrons are mobile self-splicing introns of 1.3-1.4 kb in size, with a complex organization at the RNA level. A group I twintron consists of two distinct ribozymes (catalytic RNAs) with different functions in RNA processing, and an open reading frame encoding a functional homing endonuclease--all with prospects of application as molecular tools in biotechnology. Updated RNA secondary structure models of group I twintrons, as well as an example of in vitro ribozyme activity, are presented. We suggest that the group I twintrons have been independently established in myxomycetes and schizopyrenid amoeboflagellates by horizontal gene transfer due to a combination of the phagocytotic behavior in natural environments and the extrachromosomal multicopy nature of ribosomal DNA.

Three different group I introns in the nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA of the amoeboflagellate Naegleria

We have amplified the large subunit ribosomal DNA (LSUrDNA) of the 12 described Naegleria spp. and of 34 other Naegleria lineages that might be distinct species. Two strains yielded a product that is longer than 3 kb, which is the length of the LSUrDNA of all described Naegleria spp. Sequencing data revealed that the insert in one of these strains is a group I intron without an open reading frame (ORF), while the other strain contains two different group I introns, of which the second intron has an ORF of 175 amino acids. In the latter ORF there is a conserved His-Cys box, as in the homing endonucleases present in group I introns in the small subunit ribosomal DNA (SSUrDNA) of Naegleria spp. Although the group I introns in the LSUrDNA differ in sequence, they are more related to each other than they are to the group I introns in the SSUrDNA of Naegleria spp. The three group I introns in the LSUrDNA in Naegleria are at different locations and are probably acquired by horizontal transfer, contrary to the SSUrDNA group I introns in this genus which are of ancestral origin and are transmitted vertically.

Identification of group-I introns in the 28s rDNA of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria brongniartii

The length of the 28s ribosomal DNA differs significantly between two strains (Bt102 and Bt114) of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria brongniartii. RFLP analysis on PCR products revealed the presence of three insertional elements of 350-450 bp in strain Bt114. One of the insertions has been cloned and sequenced and shown to possess all the characteristic sequences and secondary structures of a group-IC intron. Its length is 428 bp and it is devoid of any long open reading frame. The distribution of this intron elsewhere in the genome of Bt114, as well as in the chromosomal ribosomal DNA, was studied. It seems to be present as seven copies in different genes not corresponding to the mitochondrial DNA. The presence of the intron in other strains of B. brongniartii was examined by the hybridization method. Some of them seemed to possess introns with a similar core although others presented no homology with the cloned fragment.

Nucleolar introns from Physarum flavicomum contain insertion elements that may explain how mobile group I introns gained their open reading frames

Comparison of two group I intron sequences in the nucleolar genome of the myxomycete Physarum flavicomum to their homologs in the closely related Physarum polycephalum revealed insertion-like elements. One of the insertion-like elements consists of two repetitive sequence motifs of 11 and 101 bp in five and three copies, respectively. The smaller motif, which flanks the larger, resembles a target duplication and indicates a relationship to transposons or retroelements. The insertion-like elements are found in the peripheral loops of the RNA structure; the positions occupied by the ORFs of mobile nucleolar group I introns. The P. flavicomum introns are 1184 and 637 bp in size, located in the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene, and can be folded into group I intron structures at the RNA level. However, the intron 2s from both P. flavicomum and P. polycephalum contain an unusual core region that lacks the P8 segment. None of the introns are able to self-splice in vitro. Southern analysis of different isolates indicates that the introns are not optional in myxomycetes.

Group I introns are inherited through common ancestry in the nuclear-encoded rRNA of Zygnematales (Charophyceae)

Group I introns are found in organellar genomes, in the genomes of eubacteria and phages, and in nuclear-encoded rRNAs. The origin and distribution of nuclear-encoded rRNA group I introns are not understood. To elucidate their evolutionary relationships, we analyzed diverse nuclear-encoded small-subunit rRNA group I introns including nine sequences from the green-algal order Zygnematales (Charophyceae). Phylogenetic analyses of group I introns and rRNA coding regions suggest that lateral transfers have occurred in the evolutionary history of group I introns and that, after transfer, some of these elements may form stable components of the host-cell nuclear genomes. The Zygnematales introns, which share a common insertion site (position 1506 relative to the Escherichia coli small-subunit rRNA), form one subfamily of group I introns that has, after its origin, been inherited through common ancestry. Since the first Zygnematales appear in the middle Devonian within the fossil record, the "1506" group I intron presumably has been a stable component of the Zygnematales small-subunit rRNA coding region for 350-400 million years.

Evidence for the ancestral origin of group I introns in the SSUrDNA of Naegleria spp

The sequence variation within the group I intron in five Naegleria spp. was studied and compared with the sequence variation within the flanking small subunit ribosomal DNA. Considerable sequence divergence was observed in the introns as well as in the rDNA. In the intron deletions and insertions are only detected in the sequence contributing to the secondary structure, not in the open reading frame. Most of the sequence variation is detected in the unpaired loops. In the case of nucleotide substitution in helices, compensating base pair changes were observed. The sequence variation does not induce variation in the secondary structure model. The phylogenetic tree based on the intron sequences is similar to the tree based on the flanking rDNA sequences. This observation indicates that the intron might have been acquired at an early stage in evolution, and lost in the majority of Naegleria spp.

Discovery of group I introns in the nuclear small subunit ribosomal RNA genes of Acanthamoeba

The discovery of group I introns in small subunit nuclear rDNA (nsrDNA) is becoming more common as the effort to generate phylogenies based upon nsrDNA sequences grows. In this paper we describe the discovery of the first two group I introns in the nsrDNA from the genus Acanthamoeba. The introns are in different locations in the genes, and have no significant primary sequence similarity to each other. They are identified as group I introns by the conserved P, Q, R and S sequences (1), and the ability to fit the sequences to a consensus secondary structure model for the group I introns (1, 2). Both introns are absent from the mature srRNA. A BLAST search (3) of nucleic acid sequences present in GenBank and EMBL revealed that the A. griffini intron was most similar to the nsrDNA group I intron of the green alga Dunaliella parva. A similar search found that the A. lenticulata intron was not similar to any of the other reported group I introns.

An intron in the nuclear ribosomal DNA of Didymium iridis codes for a group I ribozyme and a novel ribozyme that cooperate in self-splicing

We have discovered a unique group I intron-like insertion (DiSSU) in the nuclear small subunit ribosomal RNA gene of the myxomycete Didymium iridis. By sequence, DiSSU consists of a group I ribozyme at the 5' end, an open reading frame (ORF) in the middle, and a novel element at the 3' end. Intron RNA self-splices in vitro to yield ten major processed RNAs, including a full-length circle. The group I ribozyme can efficiently cleave at an internal processing site, which separates the group I ribozyme from the ORF. Surprisingly, deletion that remove the entire group I ribozyme do not impair cleavage at the 3' splice site, implying that the 3' element itself is a catalytic RNA. Deletions that remove portions of the 3' element prevent utilization of the 5' splice site, suggesting that this element cooperates with the upstream group I ribozyme in splicing. DiSSU appears to be the first example for the cooperative interaction of distinct ribozymes in RNA splicing.

Correlation between the presence of a self-splicing intron in the 25S rDNA of C.albicans and strains susceptibility to 5-fluorocytosine

Candida albicans presents a well characterized EcoRI RFLP pattern of intensely staining bands. One of these bands, the dimorphic 3.7/4.2 kbp fragment shown to originate from the ribosomal RNA-encoding regions (rDNA), has been used by several investigators to subdivide C. albicans strains in two distinct subtypes. In the present manuscript, we report that an epidemiological study of 120 C.albicans strains revealed a significant correlation between these subtypes and susceptibility to 5-fluorocytosine, an antifungal agent extensively used for biotyping C.albicans. The 4.2 kbp strains being generally more susceptible than their counterparts to this agent and one of its metabolic by-product, 5-fluorouracil. A 379 nucleotides insertion in the 25S rRNA-encoding gene of 4.2 kbp type strains was shown to be responsible for the 3.7/4.2 size difference. This intervening sequence is typical of a group I intron by its site of insertion, its predicted secondary structure, and its self-splicing capability. Assuming there is a genuine causal relationship between presence of the intron and resistance to 5-fluorocytosine, one possible mechanism suggests that inhibition of self-splicing by the insertion of 5-fluorouracil residues in the 25S rRNA precursor might be responsible for the higher susceptibility of 4.2 kbp type strains.

A mobile group I intron from Physarum polycephalum can insert itself and induce point mutations in the nuclear ribosomal DNA of saccharomyces cerevisiae

Pp LSU3 is a mobile group I intron in the extrachromosomal nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) of Physarum polycephalum. As found for other mobile introns, Pp LSU3 encodes a site-specific endonuclease, I-Ppo, which mediates "homing" to unoccupied target sites in Physarum rDNA. The recognition sequence for this enzyme is conserved in all eucaryotic nuclear rDNAs. We have introduced this intron into a heterologous species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, in which nuclear group I introns have not been detected. The expression of Pp LSU3, under control of the inducible GAL10 promoter, was found to be lethal as a consequence of double-strand breaks in the rDNA. However, surviving colonies that are resistant to the lethal effects of I-Ppo because of alterations in the rDNA at the cleavage site were recovered readily. These survivors are of two classes. The first comprises cells that acquired one of three types of point mutations. The second comprises cells in which Pp LSU3 became inserted into the rDNA. In both cases, each resistant survivor appears to carry the same alterations in all approximately 150 rDNA repeats. When it is embedded in yeast rDNA, Pp LSU3 leads to the synthesis of I-Ppo and appears to be mobile in appropriate genetic crosses. The existence of yeast cells carrying a mobile intron should allow dissection of the steps that allow expression of the highly unusual I-Ppo gene.

A mobile group I intron from Physarum polycephalum can insert itself and induce point mutations in the nuclear ribosomal DNA of saccharomyces cerevisiae

Pp LSU3 is a mobile group I intron in the extrachromosomal nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) of Physarum polycephalum. As found for other mobile introns, Pp LSU3 encodes a site-specific endonuclease, I-Ppo, which mediates "homing" to unoccupied target sites in Physarum rDNA. The recognition sequence for this enzyme is conserved in all eucaryotic nuclear rDNAs. We have introduced this intron into a heterologous species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, in which nuclear group I introns have not been detected. The expression of Pp LSU3, under control of the inducible GAL10 promoter, was found to be lethal as a consequence of double-strand breaks in the rDNA. However, surviving colonies that are resistant to the lethal effects of I-Ppo because of alterations in the rDNA at the cleavage site were recovered readily. These survivors are of two classes. The first comprises cells that acquired one of three types of point mutations. The second comprises cells in which Pp LSU3 became inserted into the rDNA. In both cases, each resistant survivor appears to carry the same alterations in all approximately 150 rDNA repeats. When it is embedded in yeast rDNA, Pp LSU3 leads to the synthesis of I-Ppo and appears to be mobile in appropriate genetic crosses. The existence of yeast cells carrying a mobile intron should allow dissection of the steps that allow expression of the highly unusual I-Ppo gene.

Extrachromosomal ribosomal DNA of Didymium iridis: sequence analysis of the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene and sub-telomeric region

The ribosomal DNA of the myxomycete Didymium iridis is organized as extrachromosomal linear molecules of about 20 kb, containing only one transcription unit of the ribosomal RNA genes. We have determined the sequence of the large subunit ribosomal RNA (LSU rRNA) gene as well as the sub-telomeric and telomeric regions. The LSU rRNA gene was found to encode a 3857 nucleotide-long LSU rRNA, interrupted by a transcribed spacer and two group I introns. A complete secondary structure model of D. iridis LSU rRNA has been constructed. The compact sub-telomeric region of D. iridis rDNA was found to contain several directly repeated sequence elements that include the simple telomere motif TTAGGG. Based on pairwise comparisons of LSU rRNA sequences, the time of divergence between the two myxomycete genera Didymium and Physarum was estimated.