Modulation of connexon densities in gap junctions of horizontal cell perikarya and axon terminals in fish retina: effects of light/dark cycles, interruption of the optic nerve and application of dopamine

Network Architecture of Gap Junctional Coupling among Parallel Processing Channels in the Mammalian Retina

Gap junctions are ubiquitous throughout the nervous system, mediating critical signal transmission and integration, as well as emergent network properties. In mammalian retina, gap junctions within the Aii amacrine cell-ON cone bipolar cell (CBC) network are essential for night vision, modulation of day vision, and contribute to visual impairment in retinal degenerations, yet neither the extended network topology nor its conservation is well established. Here, we map the network contribution of gap junctions using a high-resolution connectomics dataset of an adult female rabbit retina. Gap junctions are prominent synaptic components of ON CBC classes, constituting 5%-25% of all axonal synaptic contacts. Many of these mediate canonical transfer of rod signals from Aii cells to ON CBCs for night vision, and we find that the uneven distribution of Aii signals to ON CBCs is conserved in rabbit, including one class entirely lacking direct Aii coupling. However, the majority of gap junctions formed by ON CBCs unexpectedly occur between ON CBCs, rather than with Aii cells. Such coupling is extensive, creating an interconnected network with numerous lateral paths both within, and particularly across, these parallel processing streams. Coupling patterns are precise with ON CBCs accepting and rejecting unique combinations of partnerships according to robust rulesets. Coupling specificity extends to both size and spatial topologies, thereby rivaling the synaptic specificity of chemical synapses. These ON CBC coupling motifs dramatically extend the coupled Aii-ON CBC network, with implications for signal flow in both scotopic and photopic retinal networks during visual processing and disease.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Electrical synapses mediated by gap junctions are fundamental components of neural networks. In retina, coupling within the Aii-ON CBC network shapes visual processing in both the scotopic and photopic networks. In retinal degenerations, these same gap junctions mediate oscillatory activity that contributes to visual impairment. Here, we use high-resolution connectomics strategies to identify gap junctions and cellular partnerships. We describe novel, pervasive motifs both within and across classes of ON CBCs that dramatically extend the Aii-ON CBC network. These motifs are highly specific with implications for both signal processing within the retina and therapeutic interventions for blinding conditions. These findings highlight the underappreciated contribution of coupling motifs in retinal circuitry and the necessity of their detection in connectomics studies.

Gap junctional coupling in the vertebrate retina: variations on one theme?

Gap junctions connect cells in the bodies of all multicellular organisms, forming either homologous or heterologous (i.e. established between identical or different cell types, respectively) cell-to-cell contacts by utilizing identical (homotypic) or different (heterotypic) connexin protein subunits. Gap junctions in the nervous system serve electrical signaling between neurons, thus they are also called electrical synapses. Such electrical synapses are particularly abundant in the vertebrate retina where they are specialized to form links between neurons as well as glial cells. In this article, we summarize recent findings on retinal cell-to-cell coupling in different vertebrates and identify general features in the light of the evergrowing body of data. In particular, we describe and discuss tracer coupling patterns, connexin proteins, junctional conductances and modulatory processes. This multispecies comparison serves to point out that most features are remarkably conserved across the vertebrate classes, including (i) the cell types connected via electrical synapses; (ii) the connexin makeup and the conductance of each cell-to-cell contact; (iii) the probable function of each gap junction in retinal circuitry; (iv) the fact that gap junctions underlie both electrical and/or tracer coupling between glial cells. These pan-vertebrate features thus demonstrate that retinal gap junctions have changed little during the over 500 million years of vertebrate evolution. Therefore, the fundamental architecture of electrically coupled retinal circuits seems as old as the retina itself, indicating that gap junctions deeply incorporated in retinal wiring from the very beginning of the eye formation of vertebrates. In addition to hard wiring provided by fast synaptic transmitter-releasing neurons and soft wiring contributed by peptidergic, aminergic and purinergic systems, electrical coupling may serve as the 'skeleton' of lateral processing, enabling important functions such as signal averaging and synchronization.

The diverse functional roles and regulation of neuronal gap junctions in the retina

Electrical synaptic transmission through gap junctions underlies direct and rapid neuronal communication in the CNS. The diversity of functional roles that electrical synapses have is perhaps best exemplified in the vertebrate retina, in which gap junctions are formed by each of the five major neuron types. These junctions are dynamically regulated by ambient illumination and by circadian rhythms acting through light-activated neuromodulators such as dopamine and nitric oxide, which in turn activate intracellular signalling pathways in the retina.The networks formed by electrically coupled neurons are plastic and reconfigurable, and those in the retina are positioned to play key and diverse parts in the transmission and processing of visual information at every retinal level.

Characterization of the internal IRES element of the zebrafish connexin55.5 reveals functional implication of the polypyrimidine tract binding protein

BACKGROUND

Connexin55.5 (Cx55.5) is a gap junction protein with horizontal cell-restricted expression in zebrafish accumulating at dendritic sites within the receptor-horizontal cell complex in form of hemichannels where light-dependent plasticity occurs. This connexin is the first example of a gap junction protein processed to form two protein isoforms from a monocistronic message by an IRES mediated process. The nuclear occurrence of a carboxy-terminal fragment of this protein provides evidence that this gap junction protein may participate in a putative cytoplasmic to nuclear signal transfer.

RESULTS

We characterized the IRES element of Cx55.5 in terms of sequence elements necessary for its activity and protein factor(s), which may play a role for its function. Two stretches of polypyrimidine tracts designated PPT1 and PPT2 which influence the IRES activity of this neuronal gap junction protein were identified. Selective deletion of PPT1 results in an appreciable decrease of the IRES activity, while the deletion of PPT2 results in a complete loss. RNA-EMSA and UV-cross linking experiments showed that protein complexes bind to this IRES element, of which the polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) was identified as one of the interacting partners with influence on IRES activity. These results indicate that PTB conveys a role in the regulation of the IRES activity of Cx55.5.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that the activity of the IRES element of the neuronal gap junction protein Cx55.5 is subject of regulation through flanking polypyrimidine tracts, and that the non-canonical trans-activation factor PTB plays an essential role in this process. This observation is of considerable importance and may provide initial insight into molecular-functional relationships of electrical coupling in horizontal cells.

Dark- and light-induced changes in coupling between horizontal cells in mammalian retina

Retinal horizontal cells exhibit large receptive fields derived from their extensive electrical coupling by means of gap junctions. The conductance of these gap junctions seems to be regulated by dopamine acting through a cAMP-mediated cascade. There is now abundant evidence that extracellular dopamine levels vary with changes in ambient light intensity, suggesting that changes in the dark/light adaptational state of the retina can modulate coupling between horizontal cells. We studied this question in the mammalian retina by determining the effects of ambient light levels, in the form of changing background light intensity, on the coupling profiles of A- and B-type horizontal cells in the rabbit. Changes in coupling were assessed by measurements of the space constants of the syncytium formed by horizontal cells and the intercellular spread of the biotinylated tracer Neurobiotin. Our results indicate that dark-adapted horizontal cells show relatively weak coupling. However, presentation of background lights as dim as one-quarter log unit above rod threshold resulted in increases in both the averaged extent of tracer coupling and space constants of A- and B-type horizontal cells. Coupling expanded further as background light intensities were increased by 1-1.5 log units, after which additional light adaptation brought about an uncoupling of cells. Coupling reached its minimum at light intensities about 3 log units above rod threshold, after which, with further light adaptation, it stabilized at levels close to those seen in dark-adapted retinas. Our results indicate that electrical coupling between mammalian horizontal cells is modulated dramatically by changes in the adaptational state of the retina: coupling is maximized under dim ambient light conditions and diminishes as the retina is dark or light adapted from this level.

Spatio-temporal receptive fields in carp retinal horizontal cells

1. The dynamics of the receptive fields of retinal horizontal cells were examined by applying a spatio-temporal modulated light signal to the retina. 2. The spatio-temporal receptive fields of both cone- and rod-driven horizontal cells, estimated through cross-correlation between the modulated light signal and the cells' responses, showed their receptive fields (the space-dependent component) to be reduced in size with time. 3. In cone-driven horizontal cells, the reduction in receptive field size was initially small but then rapidly became prominent with time. The time to peak of the time-dependent component of spatio-temporal receptive fields did not depend on the distance from the centre. 4. Application of a small amount of Co2+, an agent blocking the cone-driven horizontal cells' feedback action on cones, or GABA, resulted in a reversal of the time-dependent shrinkage of receptive fields to time-dependent expansion. 5. In rod-driven horizontal cells, the receptive field shrinkage was slow. The time to peak of the time-dependent component decreased with the distance from the centre. 6. Image processing experiments examining the response pattern in the horizontal cell layer (neural image) to a moving square of light showed smudging of the neural image when the time-dependent receptive field expansion was present, while there was essentially no smudging under conditions of receptive field shrinkage.

Formation and dissolution of spinules and changes in nematosome size require optic nerve integrity in black bass (Micropterus salmoides) retina

Teleost retinas adapted to light show numerous spinules invaginated in the cone pedicles and small nematosomes in the distal horizontal cells. Darkness induces the dissolution of spinules and the presence of large and numerous nematosomes. The aim of this work is to study the influence of optic nerve integrity on spinule formation/dissolution and changes in nematosome size during light or dark adaptation of black bass (Micropterus salmoides) retinas. Eyes from fish, dark- or light-adapted, were removed and the eyecups placed in oxygenated Ringer's solution and immediately exposed to light or dark, respectively, for 1 h. The number of spinules per pedicle and the nematosome diameter were measured on electron micrographs. Isolation of eyecups in the dark, impaired both spinule formation and nematosome size reduction when they were superfused in light. In the same way, isolation of eyecups in the light, impaired both spinule dissolution and nematosome size increase when they were superfused in dark. No significant differences in spinule number and nematosome size, following dopamine superfusion, were found in comparison to retinas superfused with Ringer's solution only. Our results suggest: (1) optic nerve integrity is necessary to yield spinule formation/disruption and changes in nematosome size during light or dark adaptation. (2) dopamine does not appear to be the primary agent responsible for spinule formation.

A comparison of receptive field and tracer coupling size of horizontal cells in the rabbit retina

The large receptive fields of retinal horizontal cells are thought to reflect extensive electrical coupling via gap junctions. It was shown recently that the biotinylated tracers, biocytin and Neurobiotin, provide remarkable images of coupling between many types of retinal neuron, including horizontal cells. Further, these demonstrations of tracer coupling between horizontal cells rivaled the size of their receptive fields, suggesting that the pattern of tracer coupling may provide some index of the extent of electrical coupling. We studied this question by comparing the receptive field and tracer coupling size of dark-adapted horizontal cells recorded in the superfused, isolated retina-eyecup of the rabbit. Both the edge-to-edge receptive field and space constants (lambda) were computed for each cell using a long, narrow slit of light displaced across the retinal surface. Cells were subsequently labeled by iontophoretic injection of Neurobiotin. The axonless A-type horizontal cells showed extensive, homologous tracer coupling in groups greater than 1000 covering distances averaging about 2 mm. The axon-bearing B-type horizontal cells were less extensively tracer coupled, showing homologous coupling of the somatic endings in groups of about 100 cells spanning approximately 400 microns and a separate homologous coupling of the axon terminal endings covering only about 275 microns. Moreover, we observed a remarkable, linear relationship between the size of the receptive fields of each of the three horizontal cell endings and the magnitude of their tracer coupling. Our findings suggest that the extent of tracer coupling provides a strong, linear index of the magnitude of electrical current flow, as derived from receptive-field measures, across groups of coupled horizontal cells. These data thus provide the first direct evidence that the receptive-field size of horizontal cells is related to the extent of their coupling via gap junctions.

Gap junctions in the vertebrate retina

The vertebrate retina is a highly laminated assemblage of specialized neuronal types, many of which are coupled by gap junctions. With one interesting exception, gap junctions are not directly responsible for the 'vertical' transmission of visual information from photoreceptors through bipolar and ganglion cells to the brain. Instead, they mediate 'lateral' connections, coupling neurons of a single type or subtype into an extended, regular array or mosaic in the plane of the retina. Such mosaics have been studied by several microscopic techniques, but new evidence for their coupled nature has recently been obtained by intracellular injection of biotinylated tracers, which can pass through gap junctional assemblies that do not pass Lucifer Yellow. This evidence adds momentum to an existing paradigm shift towards a population-based view of the retina, which can now be envisaged both as an array of semi-autonomous vertical processing modules, each extending right through the retina, and as a multi-layered stack of interacting planar mosaics, bearing some resemblance to a set of interleaved neural networks. Junctional conductance across mosaics of horizontal cells is known to be controlled dynamically with a circadian rhythm, and other dynamically-regulated conductance changes are also likely to make important contributions to signal processing. The retina is an excellent system in which to study such changes because many aspects of its structure and function are already well understood. In this review, we summarize the microscopic appearance, coupling properties and functions of gap junctions for each cell type of the neural retina, the regulatory properties that could be provided by selective expression of different connexin proteins, and the evidence for gap junctional coupling in retina development.

Structure--function relationships in gap junctions

Gap junctions are metabolic and electrotonic pathways between cells and provide direct cooperation within and between cellular nets. They are among the cellular structures most frequently investigated. This chapter primarily addresses aspects of the assembly of the gap junction channel, considering the insertion of the protein into the membrane, the importance of phosphorylation of the gap junction proteins for coupling modulation, and the formation of whole channels from two hemichannels. Interactions of gap junctions with the subplasmalemmal cytoplasm on the one side and with tight junctions on the other side are closely considered. Furthermore, reviewing the significance and alterations of gap junctions during development and oncogenesis, respectively, including the role of adhesion molecules, takes up a major part of the chapter. Finally, the literature on gap junctions in the central nervous system, especially between astrocytes in the brain cortex and horizontal cells in the retina, is summarized and new aspects on their structure-function relationship included.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone, a neuropeptide of efferent projections to the teleost retina induces light-adaptive spinule formation on horizontal cell dendrites in dark-adapted preparations kept in vitro

The teleost retina receives efferent projections from neurons of the nucleus olfactoretinalis at the base of the olfactory bulbs. These fibres contain gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) immunoreactive material and are presynaptic to retinal dopaminergic interplexiform cells. We have incubated isolated dark-adapted retinae and eyecup preparations of roach with salmon-GnRH and found an increase in horizontal cell spinule numbers to 70% light-adaptive levels. This effect was blocked by addition of haloperidol to the incubation medium suggesting that GnRH acts via stimulation of the dopaminergic interplexiform cells. We conclude that GnRH containing efferent fibres are capable of inducing light-adaptive changes in the retina and discuss their implication in the control of endogenous rhythms.