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Cieri RL. Pulmonary Smooth Muscle in Vertebrates: A Comparative Review of Structure and Function. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:10-28. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Although the airways of vertebrates are diverse in shape, complexity, and function, they all contain visceral smooth muscle. The morphology, function, and innervation of this tissue in airways is reviewed in actinopterygians, lungfish, amphibians, non-avian reptiles, birds, and mammals. Smooth muscle was likely involved in tension regulation ancestrally, and may serve to assist lung emptying in fishes and aquatic amphibians, as well as maintain internal lung structure. In certain non-avian reptiles and anurans antagonistic smooth muscle fibers may contribute to intrapulmonary gas mixing. In mammals and birds, smooth muscle regulates airway caliber, and may be important in controlling the distribution of ventilation at rest and exercise, or during thermoregulatory and vocal hyperventilation. Airway smooth muscle is controlled by the autonomic nervous system: cranial cholinergic innervation generally causes excitation, cranial non-adrenergic, non-cholinergic innervation causes inhibition, and spinal adrenergic (SA) input causes species-specific, often heterogeneous contractions and relaxations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L Cieri
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Utah, 247 South 1400 East, 201 South Biology, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Dzal YA, Jenkin SEM, Lague SL, Reichert MN, York JM, Pamenter ME. Oxygen in demand: How oxygen has shaped vertebrate physiology. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2015; 186:4-26. [PMID: 25698654 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2014] [Revised: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
In response to varying environmental and physiological challenges, vertebrates have evolved complex and often overlapping systems. These systems detect changes in environmental oxygen availability and respond by increasing oxygen supply to the tissues and/or by decreasing oxygen demand at the cellular level. This suite of responses is termed the oxygen transport cascade and is comprised of several components. These components include 1) chemosensory detectors that sense changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH in the blood, and initiate changes in 2) ventilation and 3) cardiac work, thereby altering the rate of oxygen delivery to, and carbon dioxide clearance from, the tissues. In addition, changes in 4) cellular and systemic metabolism alters tissue-level metabolic demand. Thus the need for oxygen can be managed locally when increasing oxygen supply is not sufficient or possible. Together, these mechanisms provide a spectrum of responses that facilitate the maintenance of systemic oxygen homeostasis in the face of environmental hypoxia or physiological oxygen depletion (i.e. due to exercise or disease). Bill Milsom has dedicated his career to the study of these responses across phylogenies, repeatedly demonstrating the power of applying the comparative approach to physiological questions. The focus of this review is to discuss the anatomy, signalling pathways, and mechanics of each step of the oxygen transport cascade from the perspective of a Milsomite. That is, by taking into account the developmental, physiological, and evolutionary components of questions related to oxygen transport. We also highlight examples of some of the remarkable species that have captured Bill's attention through their unique adaptations in multiple components of the oxygen transport cascade, which allow them to achieve astounding physiological feats. Bill's research examining the oxygen transport cascade has provided important insight and leadership to the study of the diverse suite of adaptations that maintain cellular oxygen content across vertebrate taxa, which underscores the value of the comparative approach to the study of physiological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne A Dzal
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sarah E M Jenkin
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sabine L Lague
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Michelle N Reichert
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Julia M York
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Matthew E Pamenter
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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Wideman RF, Rhoads DD, Erf GF, Anthony NB. Pulmonary arterial hypertension (ascites syndrome) in broilers: a review. Poult Sci 2013; 92:64-83. [PMID: 23243232 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2012-02745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) syndrome in broilers (also known as ascites syndrome and pulmonary hypertension syndrome) can be attributed to imbalances between cardiac output and the anatomical capacity of the pulmonary vasculature to accommodate ever-increasing rates of blood flow, as well as to an inappropriately elevated tone (degree of constriction) maintained by the pulmonary arterioles. Comparisons of PAH-susceptible and PAH-resistant broilers do not consistently reveal differences in cardiac output, but PAH-susceptible broilers consistently have higher pulmonary arterial pressures and pulmonary vascular resistances compared with PAH-resistant broilers. Efforts clarify the causes of excessive pulmonary vascular resistance have focused on evaluating the roles of chemical mediators of vasoconstriction and vasodilation, as well as on pathological (structural) changes occurring within the pulmonary arterioles (e.g., vascular remodeling and pathology) during the pathogenesis of PAH. The objectives of this review are to (1) summarize the pathophysiological progression initiated by the onset of pulmonary hypertension and culminating in terminal ascites; (2) review recent information regarding the factors contributing to excessively elevated resistance to blood flow through the lungs; (3) assess the role of the immune system during the pathogenesis of PAH; and (4) present new insights into the genetic basis of PAH. The cumulative evidence attributes the elevated pulmonary vascular resistance in PAH-susceptible broilers to an anatomically inadequate pulmonary vascular capacity, to excessive vascular tone reflecting the dominance of pulmonary vasoconstrictors over vasodilators, and to vascular pathology elicited by excessive hemodynamic stress. Emerging evidence also demonstrates that the pathogenesis of PAH includes characteristics of an inflammatory/autoimmune disease involving multifactorial genetic, environmental, and immune system components. Pulmonary arterial hypertension susceptibility appears to be multigenic and may be manifested in aberrant stress sensitivity, function, and regulation of pulmonary vascular tissue components, as well as aberrant activities of innate and adaptive immune system components. Major genetic influences and high heritabilities for PAH susceptibility have been demonstrated by numerous investigators. Selection pressures rigorously focused to challenge the pulmonary vascular capacity readily expose the genetic basis for spontaneous PAH in broilers. Chromosomal mapping continues to identify regions associated with ascites susceptibility, and candidate genes have been identified. Ongoing immunological and genomic investigations are likely to continue generating important new knowledge regarding the fundamental biological bases for the PAH/ascites syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- R F Wideman
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, FAyetteville 72701, USA.
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Midtgård U. Blood Vessels in the Hind Limb of the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos): Anatomical Evidence for a Sphincteric Action of Shunt Vessels in Connection with the Arterio-venous Heat Exchange System. ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-6395.1980.tb01289.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Saint-Aubain MLD. A comparative study of the functional anatomy of pulmonary vaso-constriction in lung-breathing vertebrates. J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0469.1984.tb00651.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Villamor E, Kessels CGA, Ruijtenbeek K, van Suylen RJ, Belik J, de Mey JGR, Blanco CE. Chronic in ovo hypoxia decreases pulmonary arterial contractile reactivity and induces biventricular cardiac enlargement in the chicken embryo. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2004; 287:R642-51. [PMID: 15117730 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00611.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Although chronic prenatal hypoxia is considered a major cause of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn, experimental studies have failed to consistently find pulmonary hypertensive changes after chronic intrauterine hypoxia. We hypothesized that chronic prenatal hypoxia induces changes in the pulmonary vasculature of the chicken embryo. We analyzed pulmonary arterial reactivity and structure and heart morphology of chicken embryos maintained from days 6 to 19 of the 21-day incubation period under normoxic (21% O2) or hypoxic (15% O2) conditions. Hypoxia increased mortality (0.46 vs. 0.14; P < 0.01) and reduced the body mass of the surviving 19-day embryos (22.4 ± 0.5 vs. 26.6 ± 0.7 g; P < 0.01). A decrease in the response of the pulmonary artery to KCl was observed in the 19-day hypoxic embryos. The contractile responses to endothelin-1, the thromboxane A2 mimetic U-46619, norepinephrine, and electrical-field stimulation were also reduced in a proportion similar to that observed for KCl-induced contractions. In contrast, no hypoxia-induced decrease of response to vasoconstrictors was observed in externally pipped 21-day embryos (incubated under normoxia for the last 2 days). Relaxations induced by ACh, sodium nitroprusside, or forskolin were unaffected by chronic hypoxia in the pulmonary artery, but femoral artery segments of 19-day hypoxic embryos were significantly less sensitive to ACh than arteries of control embryos [pD2 (= −log EC50): 6.51 ± 0.1 vs. 7.05 ± 0.1, P < 0.01]. Pulmonary vessel density, percent wall area, and periarterial sympathetic nerve density were not different between control and hypoxic embryos. In contrast, hypoxic hearts showed an increase in right and left ventricular wall area and thickness. We conclude that, in the chicken embryo, chronic moderate hypoxia during incubation transiently reduced pulmonary arterial contractile reactivity, impaired endothelium-dependent relaxation of femoral but not pulmonary arteries, and induced biventricular cardiac hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Villamor
- Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Maastricht, P. Debyelaan 25, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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Taylor EW, Jordan D, Coote JH. Central control of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems and their interactions in vertebrates. Physiol Rev 1999; 79:855-916. [PMID: 10390519 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.1999.79.3.855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
This review explores the fundamental neuranatomical and functional bases for integration of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems in vertebrates and traces their evolution through the vertebrate groups, from primarily water-breathing fish and larval amphibians to facultative air-breathers such as lungfish and some adult amphibians and finally obligate air-breathers among the reptiles, birds, and mammals. A comparative account of respiratory rhythm generation leads to consideration of the changing roles in cardiorespiratory integration for central and peripheral chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors and their central projections. We review evidence of a developing role in the control of cardiorespiratory interactions for the partial relocation from the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus into the nucleus ambiguus of vagal preganglionic neurons, and in particular those innervating the heart, and for the existence of a functional topography of specific groups of sympathetic preganglionic neurons in the spinal cord. Finally, we consider the mechanisms generating temporal modulation of heart rate, vasomotor tone, and control of the airways in mammals; cardiorespiratory synchrony in fish; and integration of the cardiorespiratory system during intermittent breathing in amphibians, reptiles, and diving birds. Concluding comments suggest areas for further productive research.
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Affiliation(s)
- E W Taylor
- School of Biological Sciences and Department of Physiology, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Wideman RF. Cardiac output in four-, five-, and six-week-old broilers, and hemodynamic responses to intravenous injections of epinephrine. Poult Sci 1999; 78:392-403. [PMID: 10090267 DOI: 10.1093/ps/78.3.392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Female broilers were evaluated at 4, 5, and 6 wk of age (1.2, 1.8, and 2.3 kg BW, respectively) to assess changes in cardiac output and related hemodynamics associated with BW gain, and to evaluate cardiopulmonary hemodynamic adjustments occurring secondary to i.v. injections of epinephrine (0.1 mg/ kg BW). Cardiac output increased with BW (253, 348, and 434 mL/min at 4, 5, and 6 wk, respectively) due to increases in stroke volume (0.70, 1.03, and 1.33 mL/beat) that more than compensated for reductions in heart rate (362, 337, and 328 bpm). Normalization for BW eliminated the differences in cardiac output and stroke volume. Increases in cardiac output were not associated with age- or BW-related increases in mean systemic arterial pressure (101.5, 108.6, and 108.0 mm Hg) due to corresponding reductions in total peripheral resistance (0.41, 0.32, and 0.26 relative resistance units). Epinephrine initially triggered immediate (within 90 s) threefold increases in total peripheral resistance and pulmonary vascular resistance, which, in turn, increased the systemic arterial pressure and pulmonary arterial pressure in spite of concurrent reductions in cardiac output that were associated with diminished venous return and dependent reductions in stroke volume and heart rate. Within 150 s after epinephrine injection, the systemic and pulmonary vascular resistances returned to preinjection control levels. By 300 s postinjection, stroke volume and heart rate increased, causing cardiac output to rise above preinjection control levels, which, in turn, elicited variable pulmonary arterial pressure responses apparently reflecting individual variability in the capacity for flow-dependent pulmonary vasodilation. These studies demonstrate that chronic (age- and BW-related) and acute (epinephrine-induced) changes in cardiac output in broilers reflect complex interactions among hemodynamic variables that include stroke volume, heart rate, and systemic and pulmonary vascular resistances.
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Affiliation(s)
- R F Wideman
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville 72701, USA.
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Kon Y, Miyoshi M, Hashimoto Y. Chemoreceptive epithelioid cells in the chicken aorta. An electron microscopical study. Anat Histol Embryol 1998; 27:161-6. [PMID: 9652143 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0264.1998.tb00174.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Aggregations of granulated epithelioid cells exist in the chicken aorta. In the present study, the locational characteristics of the epithelioid cells were investigated via an electron microscopic approach. Epithelioid cells were found mainly in two regions; the tunica interna just below the endothelial cell layers, and the intermediate region of the tunica media. In the former, the epithelioid cells were in contact with endothelial cells and sometimes directly exposed to the aortic lumen. No contact between the epithelioid cells and the nerve endings was observed in this region. On the other hand, in the intermediate region of the tunica media, five or more epithelioid cells were aggregated, and the synaptic structures were occasionally observed. Additionally, the epithelioid cells in this region was observed to closely contact smooth muscle cells. In an experiment using horseradish peroxidase injection, reactions were detected in the intercellular spaces between the epithelioid cells and endothelial cells. These results suggest that the epithelioid cells localized in the subendothelial region receive information from the aortic lumen, whereas their aggregations in the tunica media are controlled by the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kon
- Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Abdel-Magied EM. Ultrastructural changes in nervous elements associated with the granular cells of the common carotid artery of the domestic fowl after distal vagal ganglionectomy. Anat Histol Embryol 1993; 22:360-7. [PMID: 8129172 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0264.1993.tb00232.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Intramural granular cells of the left and right common carotid artery of the domestic fowl were examined with the electron microscope after left distal vagal ganglionectomy. The vast majority of the nerve fibers and endings associated with the granular cells of the left common carotid artery degenerated rapidly after ipsilateral ganglionectomy, indicating that they are derived from the left vagus. On the other hand, left distal vagal ganglionectomy resulted in transformation of the intramural granular cells of the right common carotid artery and the few nervous elements associated with them, into a typical chemoreceptor tissue. This tissue was made up of small granule (60-120 nm) containing cells associated with many nerve fibers, nerve endings and fenestrated capillaries. The nerve endings were of two types; presumptive afferent endings and adrenergic efferent endings. Both types of endings made synaptic junctions with the granular cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Abdel-Magied
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, King Saud University, El-Qaseem, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Kvetnoi IM, Manokhina RP. Electron-microscopic identification of endocrine secretory granules in endotheial cells. Bull Exp Biol Med 1986. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00836101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Ahlman H, Dahlström A. Vagal mechanisms controlling serotonin release from the gastrointestinal tract and pyloric motor function. JOURNAL OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 1983; 9:119-40. [PMID: 6198349 DOI: 10.1016/0165-1838(83)90136-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
This chapter focuses on investigations of two mechanisms controlled by the vagal nerve; serotonin (5-HT) release from the small intestine and pyloric motor function. Morphological, physiological, pharmacological and biochemical methods were combined in these studies. 5-HT is mainly stored in enterochromaffin cells (EC), but is present also in mast cells and nerve terminals of the gut, as observed by immunocytochemistry. Vagal nerve stimulation causes a release of 5-HT from EC to the portal circulation and to the gut lumen. Morphological evidence for the endoluminal release of 5-HT was obtained by autoradiography and immunofluorescence. The 5-HT release from EC is mediated by a beta-adrenoceptor mechanism via sympathetic adrenergic fibers in the vagal nerve, originating from sympathetic ganglia, e.g. the superior cervical ganglion. This vagal adrenergic pathway was studied by fluorescence microscopy and retrograde tracing of horseradish peroxidase. The vagal peptidergic (nonadrenergic, noncholinergic) control of pyloric motor function was studied in chloralosed cats by means of an in vivo model, where changes of an applied flow of body-warm saline through the pylorus were recorded. Also, gastric volume changes were monitored. By means of immunofluorescence the presence of VIP-, enkephalin (ENK)- and substance P (SP)-like immunoreactivity was demonstrated in pyloric neurons and in the vagal nerve. Physiological evidence for a vagal VIPergic relaxatory mechanism was obtained, while ENK-neurons seem to mediate the vagally induced pyloric contraction, prevented by naloxone pretreatment. SP may mediate part of the vagally induced pyloric and gastric contraction, the latter probably via axon collaterals on final cholinergic neurons. ENKergic and SPergic vagal contractile mechanisms seem to be additive for the pylorus.
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Butler PJ, Jones DR. The comparative physiology of diving in vertebrates. ADVANCES IN COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 1982; 8:179-364. [PMID: 6753521 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-011508-2.50012-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Bower AJ, Molony V, Brown CM. An autoradiographic method for the demonstration of vagal afferent nerve fibres in the lower respiratory tract of the chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus). EXPERIENTIA 1975; 31:620-2. [PMID: 49277 DOI: 10.1007/bf01932492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Papka RE. A study of catecholamine-containing cells in the hearts of fetal and postnatal rabbits by fluorescence and electron microscopy. Cell Tissue Res 1974; 154:471-84. [PMID: 4442110 DOI: 10.1007/bf00219668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Walsh C, McLelland J. Intraepithelial axons in the avian trachea. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ZELLFORSCHUNG UND MIKROSKOPISCHE ANATOMIE (VIENNA, AUSTRIA : 1948) 1974; 147:209-17. [PMID: 4824494 DOI: 10.1007/bf00582796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Groth HP. Licht- und fluoreszenzmikroskopische Untersuchungen zur Innervation des Luftsacksystems der V�gel. Cell Tissue Res 1972. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00582760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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