Formation of sea urchin primary mesenchyme: cell shape changes are independent of epithelial detachment

Mechanisms, mechanics and function of epithelial-mesenchymal transitions in early development

Epithelial-mesenchymal transitions (EMTs) are an important mechanism for reorganizing germ layers and tissues during embryonic development. They have both a morphogenic function in shaping the embryo and a patterning function in bringing about new juxtapositions of tissues, which allow further inductive patterning events to occur [Genesis 28 (2000) 23]. Whereas the mechanics of EMT in cultured cells is relatively well understood [reviewed in Biochem. Pharmacol. 60 (2000) 1091; Cell 105 (2001) 425; Bioessays 23 (2001) 912], surprisingly little is known about EMTs during embryonic development [reviewed in Acta Anat. 154 (1995) 8], and nowhere is the entire process well characterized within a single species. Embryonic (developmental) EMTs have properties that are not seen or are not obvious in culture systems or cancer cells. Developmental EMTs are part of a specific differentiative path and occur at a particular time and place. In some types of embryos, a relatively intact epithelium must be maintained while some of its cells de-epithelialize during EMT. In most cases de-epithelialization (loss of apical junctions) must occur in an orderly, patterned fashion in order that the proper morphogenesis results. Interestingly, we find that de-epithelialization is not always necessarily tightly coupled to the expression of mesenchymal phenotypes.Developmental EMTs are multi-step processes, though the interdependence and obligate order of the steps is not clear. The particulars of the process vary between tissues, species, and specific embryonic context. We will focus on 'primary' developmental EMTs, which are those occurring in the initial epiblast or embryonic epithelium. 'Secondary' developmental EMT events are those occurring in epithelial tissues that have reassembled within the embryo from mesenchymal cells. We will review and compare a number of primary EMT events from across the metazoans, and point out some of the many open questions that remain in this field.

Characterization of the role of cadherin in regulating cell adhesion during sea urchin development

During development, the modulation of cadherin adhesive function is proposed to control various morphogenetic events including epithelial-mesenchymal conversions and tubulogenesis, although the mechanisms responsible for regulating cadherin activity during these events remain unclear. In order to gain insights into the regulation of cadherin function during morphogenesis, we utilized the sea urchin embryo as a model system to study the regulation of cadherin localization during epithelial-mesenchymal conversion and convergent-extension movements. Polyclonal antibodies raised against the cytoplasmic domain of a cloned sea urchin cadherin recognize three major polypeptides of M(r) 320, 140, and 125 kDa and specifically stain adherens junctions, and to a lesser extent, lateral membrane domains in all epithelial tissues of the embryo. Analysis of embryos during gastrulation demonstrates that changes in cadherin localization are observed in cells undergoing an epithelial-mesenchymal conversion. Ingression of primary mesenchyme cells is accompanied by the rapid loss of junctional cadherin staining and the coincident accumulation of cadherin in intracellular organelles. These data are consistent with the idea that the deadhesion of mesenchymal cells from neighboring epithelial cells involves the regulated endocytosis of cell surface cadherin molecules. Conversely, neither cadherin abundance nor localization is altered in cells of the gut which undergo convergent-extension movements during the formation of the archenteron. This observation indicates that these movements do not require the loss of junctional cadherin molecules. Instead, the necessary balance between adhesion and motility may be achieved by regulating the expression of different subtypes of cadherin molecules or modifying interactions between cadherins and catenins, proteins that bind the cytoplasmic domain of cadherin and are necessary for cadherin adhesive function. To address cadherin function at the molecular level, we used a partial cDNA representing the conserved cytoplasmic domain to identify a novel cadherin molecule in the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus. The deduced amino acid sequence of LvG-cadherin (for Goliath-cadherin) predicts that it is a transmembrane protein with an apparent relative molecular mass of 303 kDa. The cytoplasmic domain shows significant sequence identity to that of vertebrate classic cadherins. However, the extracellular domain is distinguished from its vertebrate counterparts by both an increased number of cadherin-specific repeats and the presence of four EGF-like repeats proximal to the transmembrane domain. Taken together, these data are consistent with the hypothesis that the sea urchin possesses several cadherins, including a novel member of the cadherin family, and that the dynamic regulation of cadherin localization plays a role in epithelial to mesenchymal conversions during gastrulation.