Photomovement of the red alga Porphyridium cruentum (Ag.) Naegeli

Phototaxis of the Unicellular Red Alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae Is Mediated by Novel Actin-Driven Tentacles

Phototaxis, which is the ability to move towards or away from a light source autonomously, is a common mechanism of unicellular algae. It evolved multiple times independently in different plant lineages. As of yet, algal phototaxis has been linked mainly to the presence of cilia, the only known locomotive organelle in unicellular algae. Red algae (Rhodophyta), however, lack cilia in all stages of their life cycle. Remarkably, multiple unicellular red algae like the extremophile Cyanidioschyzon merolae (C. merolae) can move towards light. Remarkably, it has remained unclear how C. merolae achieves movement, and the presence of a completely new mechanism has been suggested. Here we show that the basis of this movement are novel retractable projections, termed tentacles due to their distinct morphology. These tentacles could be reproducibly induced within 20 min by increasing the salt concentration of the culture medium. Electron microscopy revealed filamentous structures inside the tentacles that we identified to be actin filaments. This is surprising as C. merolae's single actin gene was previously published to not be expressed. Based on our findings, we propose a model for C. merolae's actin-driven but myosin-independent motility. To our knowledge, the described tentacles represent a novel motility mechanism.

Light-diffractive patterning of Porphyridium purpureum

Living structures: By projection of a light pattern from a computer-generated hologram, patterns of the algae Porphyridium purpureum were generated. The obtained pixelated pattern was evaluated and discussed in the context of the organism's phototaxis.

Evolution of phototaxis

Phototaxis in the broadest sense means positive or negative displacement along a light gradient or vector. Prokaryotes most often use a biased random walk strategy, employing type I sensory rhodopsin photoreceptors and two-component signalling to regulate flagellar reversal. This strategy only allows phototaxis along steep light gradients, as found in microbial mats or sediments. Some filamentous cyanobacteria evolved the ability to steer towards a light vector. Even these cyanobacteria, however, can only navigate in two dimensions, gliding on a surface. In contrast, eukaryotes evolved the capacity to follow a light vector in three dimensions in open water. This strategy requires a polarized organism with a stable form, helical swimming with cilia and a shading or focusing body adjacent to a light sensor to allow for discrimination of light direction. Such arrangement and the ability of three-dimensional phototactic navigation evolved at least eight times independently in eukaryotes. The origin of three-dimensional phototaxis often followed a transition from a benthic to a pelagic lifestyle and the acquisition of chloroplasts either via primary or secondary endosymbiosis. Based on our understanding of the mechanism of phototaxis in single-celled eukaryotes and animal larvae, it is possible to define a series of elementary evolutionary steps, each of potential selective advantage, which can lead to pelagic phototactic navigation. We can conclude that it is relatively easy to evolve phototaxis once cell polarity, ciliary swimming and a stable cell shape are present.

Morphology of photoreceptor systems in microalgae

The polyphyletic artificial assemblage of O(2)-evolving, photosynthetic organisms, collectively referred to as algae, include a highly diverse array of organisms from large seaweeds (macroalgae) to unicellular microalgae. Phycology, the study of algae, focuses on morphological, ecological, physiological and molecular biological aspects of these organisms. Most microalgae show a photo-behaviour, i.e. they sense light and move towards it; in this review we will describe morphological similarities and differences in the photoreceptive system of microalgae.