Chromosome aberration induction in Chinese hamster ovary cells by restriction enzymes with different methylation sensitivity

Probing the chromosome 9p21 region susceptible to DNA double-strand breaks in human cells in vivo by restriction enzyme transfer

A restriction enzyme, MspI, was introduced into cultured human cells as a probe to detect genomic regions susceptible to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). A 2 h exposure to MspI at a concentration of 8 U/mul produced DSBs at MspI sites in more than 80% of HeLa cells. The sensitivity to digestion was examined on chromosomal DNAs for the region containing the p16 tumor suppressor gene and two other related genes, p14ARF and p15, by Southern blot hybridization analysis and linker-mediated capture of DNA fragments digested in vivo. DNAs for the promoter regions of the three genes, respectively, were sensitive to MspI digestion in HeLa cells, while DNA for the p16 promoter region was less sensitive in lung cancer cells with hypermethylation of the region. Breakpoints for interstitial 9p21 deletions removing the p16/p14ARF/p15 locus in a variety of human cancers were significantly over-represented in the three sensitive regions. The results suggest that the MspI sensitivity in vivo of each genomic region reflects its susceptibility to DSBs that trigger chromosome aberrations in human cells. This method could help us understand the pathogenic significance of differential susceptibility to DSBs among genomic regions in human carcinogenesis.

Genetic analysis in fungi using restriction-enzyme-mediated integration

Restriction-enzyme-mediated integration (REMI), a method for generating nonhomologous integration of transforming DNA into the chromosomes of eukaryotic cells, has been used for insertion mutagenesis and other genetic studies in diverse organisms. Insertion mutations generated by REMI have facilitated the genetic dissection of developmental pathways in Dictyostelium discoidium and the isolation of virulence factors in several plant pathogenic fungi. Recent work indicates that REMI occurs by nonhomologous end joining.

Relationships between the cytotoxic effects of restriction endonucleases and radiation on mammalian cells

Wild-type Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, a radiosensitive mutant CHO line (xrs6), and two human cervical carcinoma cell lines, MS751 and ME180, differ in sensitivity to ionizing radiation with surviving fractions at 2 Gy (SF2) of 0.84, 0.06, 0.90 and 0.24 respectively. Restriction endonucleases (REs) were introduced into the cells by treatment with streptolysin O (SLO) and the effects of this on clonogenic cell survival were compared. A comparison was made of REs inducing either blunt- (AluI) or cohesive-ended (Sau3AI) double-strand breaks. Whilst MS751 cells were resistant to the effects of both REs, AluI caused significantly greater cell killing than Sau3AI in the other three lines (p < 0.05 for all). Both ME180 and xrs6 were significantly more sensitive to REs than their radioresistant counterparts, MS751 and CHO (p < 0.05 for both). In order to investigate the effect of DNA methylation on dsb induction, the isoschizomers MspI and HpaII (cohesive-ended dsb inducers) were introduced into the cell lines. Both REs recognize the same sequence but HpaII cannot cleave if the internal cytosine is methylated. MS751 was also resistant to the effects of both of these enzymes and MspI was more cytotoxic than HpaII in the other three lines (p < 0.03 for all). The differential sensitivity to the two REs was more marked in the radiosensitive cell lines, suggesting that there may be a greater degree of DNA methylation in radiosensitive cells. The variation in sensitivities to REs between the cell lines could not be explained in terms of differences in cell poration following SLO treatment because, although MS751 was resistant to SLO (25% of cells porated), the other three lines showed the same level of cell poration (98% of cells). With these four cell lines, there was a significant correlation between sensitivity to RE and radiosensitivity for AluI, Sau3AI and MspI but not for HpaII.

The effectiveness of restriction endonucleases in cell killing and mutation

The use of restriction endonucleases (RE) to study the importance of DNA break end structures in differential cellular response has proved controversial. The number of DNA cut sites and the accessibility of RE are recognized examples of confounding factors. We have eliminated these factors by comparing the effectiveness of isoschizomers. Additionally, we considered for the first time the tolerance of the enzymes to cellular conditions. Cell killing and mutation were compared to the overall cutting ability of the enzymes in an "intracellular" buffer. We found that the activity of each RE combined with its lifetime, under simulated cellular conditions, were the overriding factors in determining effectiveness.

Restriction-endonuclease-induced DNA double-strand breaks and chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells

Restriction endonucleases (RE) can be used to mimic and model the clastogenic effects of ionising radiation. With the development of improved techniques for cell poration: electroporation and recently streptolysin O (SLO), it has become possible more confidently to study the relationships between DNA double-strand breaks (dsb) of various types (e.g. blunt or cohesive-ended) and the frequencies of induced metaphase chromosomal aberrations or micronuclei in cytokinesis-blocked cells. Although RE-induced dsb do not mimic the chemical end-structure of radiation-induced dsb (i.e. the 'dirty' ends of radiation-induced dsb), it has become clear that cohesive-ended dsb, which are thought to be the major type of dsb induced by radiation, are much less clastogenic than blunt-ended dsb. It has also been possible, with the aid of electroporation or SLO to measure the kinetics of dsb in cells as a function of time after treatment. These experiments have shown that some RE (e.g. Pvu II) are extremely stable inside CHO cells and at high concentrations persist and induce dsb over a period of many hours following treatment. Cutting of DNA by RE is thought to be at specific recognition sequences (as in free DNA) although the frequencies of sites in native chromatin available to RE is not yet known. DNA condensation and methylation are both factors limiting the numbers of available cutting sites. Relatively little is known about the kinetics of incision or repair of RE-induced dsb in cells. Direct ligation may be a method used by cells to rejoin the bulk of RE-induced dsb, since inhibitors such as araA, araC and aphidicolin appear not prevent rejoining, although these inhibitors have been found to lead to enhanced frequencies of chromosomal aberrations. 3-Aminobenzimide, the poly-ADP ribose polymerase inhibitor is the only agent that has so far been shown to inhibit rejoining of RE-induced dsb. Data from the radiosensitive xrs5 cell line, where chromosomal aberration frequencies are higher after RE treatments than in their normal parental CHO line, indicates that the xrs dsb repair pathway is involved in the repair of these dsb. We found that cells treated simultaneous with Pvu II and T4 ligase yielded lower levels of chromosomal damage than in the WT parental line indicating that Pvu II induced dsb retain their ability to be blunt-end ligated inside the cell.

Nonhomologous DNA end rejoining in chromosomal aberration formation

The role of recombination of nonhomologous DNA ends in chromosomal aberration formation was investigated in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Restriction enzymes that produce blunt, 3' overhanging, or 5' overhanging DNA double-strand breaks were electroporated into cells in various combinations, and chromosomal aberrations were analyzed at metaphase. For all enzyme combinations tested, there was a significant increase in the frequency of aberrations whose formation requires two breaks in the DNA over the sum obtained when each of the enzymes was tested separately and the aberration frequencies were totaled. No such pattern existed for terminal deletions, which presumably require only one DNA break. The extent of interaction did not depend on the homology in the overhanging sequences or on the combination of ends used, although the largest effect was seen with a combination of two blunt ends. This study shows that nonhomologous DNA double-strand breaks can interact to increase chromosomal aberration formation significantly.

Chromosomal aberration induction in CHO cells by combined exposure to restriction enzymes and X-rays

The potential interaction between restriction enzyme-induced double-strand breaks (dsb) and X-ray-induced lesions in the formation of chromosomal aberrations was investigated in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Either Alu I, which induces blunt-end dsb, or Sau 3AI, which induces cohesive-end dsb, was electroporated into cells, which were irradiated with 2 Gy of X-rays immediately or 15, 30, 60, 120, or 180 min after electroporation. A significant increase in Alu I-induced chromosomal aberrations was observed when cells were irradiated with 0, 15, 30, or 60 min after enzyme exposure, but only additive effects were found when cells were irradiated 120 or 180 min after enzyme exposure. In one of three experiments, cells exposed to Sau 3AI showed a large increase in aberrations when X-irradiated 0 or 15 min after Sau 3AI exposure, and no increase at any time-points thereafter. These results indicate that restriction enzyme-induced dsb can interact with X-ray-induced lesions, resulting in a synergistic increase in chromosomal aberration formation. Furthermore, this interaction depends on both the type of dsb and the time between enzyme and X-ray exposure.