Invasion of HeLa cells byEdwardsiella tarda

Cytokines Induced by Edwardsiella tarda: Profile and Role in Antibacterial Immunity

Edwardsiella tarda is a Gram-negative bacterial pathogen with a broad range of hosts, including fish and mammals. In the present study, we used an advanced antibody array technology to identify the expression pattern of cytokines induced by E. tarda in a mouse infection model. In total, 31 and 24 differentially expressed cytokines (DECs) were identified in the plasma at 6 h and 24 h post-infection (hpi), respectively. The DECs were markedly enriched in the Gene Ontology (GO) terms associated with cell migration and response to chemokine and in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways associated with immunity, diseases, and infection. Ten key DECs, including IL6 and TNF-α, were found to form extensive protein-protein interaction networks. IL6 was demonstrated to inhibit E. tarda infection and be required for E. tarda-induced inflammatory response. TNF-α also exerted an inhibitory effect on E. tarda infection, and knockdown of fish (Japanese flounder) TNF-α promoted E. tarda invasion in host cells. Together, the results of this study revealed a comprehensive profile of cytokines induced by E. tarda, thus adding new insights into the role of cytokine-associated immunity against bacterial infection and also providing the potential plasma biomarkers of E. tarda infection for future studies.

ORF13 in the Type III secretion system gene cluster of Edwardsiella tarda binds to the mammalian factor Cugbp2

The Type III secretion system (TTSS) is essential for the intracellular replication of Edwardsiella tarda in phagocytes of fish and mammals, and a hypothetical gene (orf13) located in the TTSS gene cluster is required for intracellular replication and virulence of E. tarda. Here, we show that under TTSS-inducing conditions, the protein ORF13 was secreted into culture supernatant. Then, using a yeast 2-hybrid screen, we show that the mammalian factor Cugbp2, which regulates apoptosis in breast cancer cells, directly interacts with ORF13. A pull-down assay revealed that ORF13 binds to the C-terminal region of Cugbp2. Our results suggest that ORF13 may facilitate E. tarda replication in phagocytes by binding to Cugbp2.

Identification and functional characterization of the novel Edwardsiella tarda effector EseJ

Edwardsiella tarda is a Gram-negative enteric pathogen that causes hemorrhagic septicemia in fish and gastro- and extraintestinal infections in humans. The type III secretion system (T3SS) of E. tarda has been identified as a key virulence factor that contributes to pathogenesis in fish. However, little is known about the associated effectors translocated by this T3SS. In this study, by comparing the profile of secreted proteins of the wild-type PPD130/91 and its T3SS ATPase ΔesaN mutant, we identified a new effector by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry. This effector consists of 1,359 amino acids, sharing high sequence similarity with Orf29/30 of E. tarda strain EIB202, and is renamed EseJ. The secretion and translocation of EseJ depend on the T3SS. A ΔeseJ mutant strain adheres to epithelioma papillosum of carp (EPC) cells 3 to 5 times more extensively than the wild-type strain does. EseJ inhibits bacterial adhesion to EPC cells from within bacterial cells. Importantly, the ΔeseJ mutant strain does not replicate efficiently in EPC cells and fails to replicate in J774A.1 macrophages. In infected J774A.1 macrophages, the ΔeseJ mutant elicits higher production of reactive oxygen species than wild-type E. tarda. The replication defect is consistent with the attenuation of the ΔeseJ mutant in the blue gourami fish model: the 50% lethal dose (LD50) of the ΔeseJ mutant is 2.34 times greater than that of the wild type, and the ΔeseJ mutant is less competitive than the wild type in mixed infection. Thus, EseJ represents a novel effector that contributes to virulence by reducing bacterial adhesion to EPC cells and facilitating intracellular bacterial replication.

Type III secretion system genes of Edwardsiella tarda associated with intracellular replication and virulence in zebrafish

The Type III secretion system (T3SS) is essential for intracellular replication of Edwardsiella tarda in phagocytes of fish and mammals. Two possible effector candidate genes (eseE and eseG) and 7 hypothetical genes (esaB, escC, orf13, orf19, orf26, orf29, and orf30) located in the T3SS gene cluster were inactivated by an allelic exchange method, and we found that E. tarda strains carrying insertion mutations in escC, orf13, orf19, orf29, and orf30 were unable to replicate within J774 macrophages and HEp-2 epithelial cells. Furthermore, the virulence of these mutants to zebrafish was severely attenuated as well. These data suggest that the escC, orf13, orf19, orf29, and orf30 genes are required for intracellular replication and virulence of E. tarda.

EseG, an effector of the type III secretion system of Edwardsiella tarda, triggers microtubule destabilization

Edwardsiella tarda is a Gram-negative enteric pathogen that causes hemorrhagic septicemia in fish and both gastrointestinal and extraintestinal infections in humans. A type III secretion system (T3SS) was recently shown to contribute to pathogenesis, since deletions of various T3SS genes increased the 50% lethal dose (LD(50)) by about 1 log unit in the blue gourami infection model. In this study, we report EseG as the first identified effector protein of T3SS. EseG shares partial homology with two Salmonella T3SS effectors (SseG and SseF) over a conserved domain (amino acid residues 142 to 192). The secretion of EseG is dependent on a functional T3SS and, in particular, requires the chaperone EscB. Experiments using TEM-1 β-lactamase as a fluorescence-based reporter showed that EseG was translocated into HeLa cells at 35°C. Fractionation of infected HeLa cells demonstrated that EseG was localized to the host membrane fraction after translocation. EseG is able to disassemble microtubule structures when overexpressed in mammalian cells. This phenotype may require a conserved motif of EseG (EseG(142-192)), since truncated versions of EseG devoid of this motif lose their ability to cause microtubule destabilization. By demonstrating the function of EseG, our study contributes to the understanding of E. tarda pathogenesis. Moreover, the approach established in this study to identify type III effectors can be used to identify and characterize more type III and possible type VI effectors in Edwardsiella.

The type III secretion system-dependent repression of NF-kappaB activation to the intracellular growth of Edwardsiella tarda in human epithelial cells

Edwardsiella tarda is a pathogen with a broad host range infecting animals and humans. We have reported recently that the type III secretion system (TTSS) is essential for intracellular replication of the bacterium in murine macrophages. The present study shows that the TTSS is also needed for intracellular growth of the bacterium in human epithelial cells (HEp-2). However, different from the previous microarray analyses on murine macrophages, upregulation of the mRNA expression level of NF-kappaB target genes was not detected in the infected HEp-2 cells. The wild-type E. tarda, but not its TTSS mutant, actually repressed the tumor necrosis factor alpha-dependent NF-kappaB activation in an NF-kappaB reporter gene assay. These results suggest TTSS-dependent repression of the NF-kappaB activation in HEp-2 cells infected with E. tarda.

Microbiological comparative study of isolates of Edwardsiella tarda isolated in different countries from fish and humans

It is difficult to use tissue culture assays to investigate adherence and other properties of Edwardsiella tarda because the organism is invasive and produces a potent hemolysin. We therefore relied on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to determine the occurrence of genes for enterotoxins (LT-I, EAST-1), Shiga toxin (Stx-1, Stx-2), cytotoxic necrotizing factors (CNF-1, CNF-2), aerobactin, invasion plasmid of enteroinvasive Escherichia coli, EPEC adherence factor (EAF), intimin (Eae), enterohemolysin (EntHly) and hemolysin (Hly) in 53 isolates of E. tarda from humans and fish from several countries. All isolates were negative for all genes investigated by PCR. Adhesion to and invasion of HeLa cells were determined by using the unusually short incubation time of 1h or 30 min. All isolates adhered and invaded in these tests. Finally, a random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) test distinguished, with a few exceptions, isolates of human and fish origin.

Edwardsiella tarda induces plasma membrane ruffles on infection of HEp-2 cells

Interaction of two clinical Edwardsiella tarda isolates with HEp-2 cells was investigated. By electron microscopy we observed at 1 h post infection that E. tarda induced formation of extensive plasma membrane projections resembling membrane ruffles. The ruffles did not coincide with adhering bacteria. Only few invading bacteria were seen. Vacuolated nuclear membrane was occasionally observed. Three hours post infection, E. tarda induced a contact-dependent cell lysis, revealing the host cell cytoskeleton and nucleus. Only one of the E. tarda strains was seen residing within the host cell remains. The results indicate that E. tarda-induced membrane ruffles may involve a distinct mechanism of bacterial pathogenesis.

An Edwardsiella tarda strain containing a mutation in a gene with homology to shlB and hpmB is defective for entry into epithelial cells in culture

Edwardsiella tarda is an enteric pathogen that causes diarrhea, wound infections, and death due to septicemia. This species is capable of invading human epithelial cell lines, and we have now been able to follow the entry and replication of E. tarda within tissue culture host cells. E. tarda escapes from the endocytic vacuole within minutes of entry and then replicates within the cytoplasm. Unlike other well-studied bacteria that replicate and reside in the cytoplasm, we never observed this organism moving directly from cell to cell; instead the bacteria spread by lysing the plasma membrane after several rounds of replication. Efforts to study the interactions of E. tarda with tissue culture cells are complicated by the presence of a potent cytotoxin that the bacterium produces. Using transposon mutagenesis, we isolated a noncytotoxic strain of E. tarda. This mutant is also defective for hemolysin production. The dual phenotype of this strain is consistent with the hypothesis that cytotoxicity is due to the previously characterized E. tarda hemolysin activity. The nonhemolytic strain is also unable to enter HEp-2 cells. The disrupted gene has sequence similarity to members of a family of genes required for transport and activation of the hemolysin genes, shlA and hpmA. A cosmid bearing 40 kb of E. tarda DNA, including wild-type copies of the E. tarda homologs of the transporter-activator protein and the hemolysin itself, confers hemolytic, cytotoxic, and invasive abilities upon normally nonhemolytic, noncytotoxic, and noninvasive strains of Escherichia coli. Sequence data indicate that the genes required for hemolytic activity are linked to a transposable element, suggesting that they arose in the E. tarda genome by horizontal transfer.

Lack of virulence factors in Escherichia coli strains of enteropathogenic serogroups isolated from water

Thirty-eight Escherichia coli strains belonging to 14 human enteropathogenic serogroups were isolated from 33 of 208 water samples studied. No virulence factor or virulence-related gene sequences were found in any of the 38 strains analyzed. The results point out the importance of detecting specific virulence factors before incriminating water as a source of human diarrhea.

Pathogenic properties of Edwardsiella species

The pathogenic characteristics of 35 Edwardsiella strains from clinical and environmental sources were investigated. Overall, most Edwardsiella tarda strains were invasive in HEp-2 cell monolayers, produced a cell-associated hemolysin and siderophores, and bound Congo red; many strains also expressed mannose-resistant hemagglutination against guinea pig erythrocytes. Edwardsiella hoshinae strains bound Congo red and were variable in their invasive and hemolytic capabilities while Edwardsiella ictaluri strains did not produce either factor; neither E. hoshinae nor E. ictaluri expressed mannose-resistant hemagglutination nor elaborated siderophores under the tested conditions. Selected strains of each species tested for mouse lethality indicated strain variability in pathogenic potential, with E. tarda strains being the most virulent; 50% lethal doses in individual strains did not correlate with plasmid content, chemotactic motility, serum resistance, or expression of selected enzyme activities. The results suggest some potential important differences in pathogenic properties that may help explain their environmental distribution and ability to cause disease in humans.

Penetration and replication of Edwardsiella spp. in HEp-2 cells

The ability of 22 Edwardsiella strains to penetrate and replicate in cultured epithelial cells was initially evaluated by light microscopy methods and by the recovery of gentamicin-resistant (Gmr) bacteria from the Triton X-100 cell lysates of HEp-2-infected monolayers. Giemsa-stained HEp-2 cells revealed the presence of numerous internalized bacteria 3 h postinfection, often appearing as parallel rows of replicated bacteria within the cytosol and sometimes obliterating the cytoplasm because of the large numbers of bacilli present. Invasive bacteria were also sometimes found within cytoplasmic vacuoles in infected cells; thin-section electron micrographs of HEp-2-infected cells supported these conclusions. Results of light microscopy studies and cell lysate assays indicated that most Edwardsiella tarda (92%) and some Edwardsiella hoshinae strains were invasion positive on one or more occasions, while Edwardsiella ictaluri isolates were uniformly negative. HEp-2 invasion by E. tarda was a microfilament-dependent (cytochalasin B- and D-sensitive) process, with maximum numbers of Gmr CFU recorded between 3 and 6 h postinfection. The small percentage (0.01 to 1.0%) of the challenge inoculum recoverable as Gmr progeny 3 to 6 h postinfection was attributed to a strong cell-associated (not filterable) hemolysin that was produced by a majority (85%) of the E. tarda strains but not by E. ictaluri and only minimally by E. hoshinae. This cytolysin/hemolysin was responsible for the toxic effects observed in HEp-2 cells during the infection-replication process of edwardsiellae and appears to play a role in the release of internalized and replicated bacteria from infected cells. The results suggest an invasion strategy with some similarities to and differences from those of other recognized enteroinvasive pathogens.

DNA probes for identification of enteroinvasive Escherichia coli

Eighty-one Escherichia coli strains belonging to all known invasive O serogroups were tested with two distinct invasiveness probes (pMR17 and pSF55). All 54 Sereny test-positive strains and 5 strains that lost Sereny positivity during storage hybridized with both probes. Probe-positive strains carried a 120- to 140-megadalton plasmid, did not produce lysine decarboxylase, and, with the exception of certain serotypes, were nonmotile. Motile strains of serotype O144:H25 were for the first time characterized as invasive by hybridization with the probes.