Use of reactivation techniques for the differential diagnosis of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticide poisoning in birds

Comparative study of esterase activities in different tissues of marine fish species Trachurus trachurus, Merluccius merluccius and Trisopterus luscus

Pesticides are one of the most frequently anthropogenic xenobiotics detected in water. Among these, the organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) are very widely used in agriculture due to their broad spectrum of activity and their low price, but they also have high potent effects as neurotoxic compounds in non-target organisms. The aim of this study was to evaluate biomarkers acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), propionylcholinesterase (PChE) and carboxylesterase (CbE) in the representative Atlantic fish species Trachurus trachurus, Merluccius merluccius and Trisopterus luscus from "Rías Gallegas", a traditional Spanish fishing area. These esterase activities were evaluated in the brain, muscle and liver to determine the most adequate tissue to measure such enzymatic activities. The sensitivity of AChE and CbE activities from different tissues the widely used organophosphorus insecticide chlorpyrifos (CP), and its toxic metabolite (CP-oxon) was also tested. AChE activity was predominant in all tissues of the analysed species (particularly in brain constituting from 78.33%, 89.83% and 88.43% of total ChEs in Trachurus trachurus, Merluccius merluccius and Trisopterus luscus, respectively). Under in vitro exposure, esterases were shown to be highly sensitive to CP and especially to CP-oxon. Moreover, a similar effect observed on AChE and CbE activities could suggest that CbE activity might contribute efficiently against the toxic effects of CP, especially in muscle and the liver. The presence of BChE, PChE and upper CbE activities in muscle and the liver and their OP-sensibilities can be used to study their function in the pesticide biochemical detoxification pathways with a prominent role as a safeguarding mechanism against pesticide toxicity.

Brain cholinesterase reactivation as a marker of exposure to anticholinesterase pesticides: a case study in a population of yellow-legged gull Larus michahellis (Naumann, 1840) along the northern coast of Portugal

Between late 2010 to early 2011, an increased mortality in gulls was observed along the northern coast of Portugal, with individuals exhibiting neurologic disorders consistent with an eventual anticholinesterase pesticide poisoning event. To clarify if this mortality was related to organophosphate (OP) and/or carbamate (CB) poisoning, chemical and spontaneous cholinesterase (ChE) reactivation was tested in the brain of the yellow-legged gull (Larus michahellis). Initial brain ChE activity in L. michahellis was 40.92 ± 5.23 U/mg of protein (average ± SE). Following chemical and spontaneous reactivation, ChE activity increased in average 70.38 ± 48.59% and 131.95 ± 92.64%, respectively. ChE reactivation was found to decrease at increasing concentrations of the oxime pyridine-2-aldoxime methochloride and dilution factor, underscoring the importance of first optimizing the assay conditions prior to its use on bird species. These results suggest that birds analysed could have been exposed to OP and CB pesticide compounds and that in most cases CB exposure appeared to be the main cause of birds poisoning. These results are an important contribution to environmental monitoring as it demonstrates the suitability of L. michaellis as sentinel species of OP and CB pesticides within an urban environment.

Inhibition, recovery and oxime-induced reactivation of muscle esterases following chlorpyrifos exposure in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris

Assessment of wildlife exposure to organophosphorus (OP) pesticides generally involves the measurement of cholinesterase (ChE) inhibition, and complementary biomarkers (or related endpoints) are rarely included. Herein, we investigated the time course inhibition and recovery of ChE and carboxylesterase (CE) activities in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris exposed to chlorpyrifos, and the ability of oximes to reactivate the phosphorylated ChE activity. Results indicated that these esterase activities are a suitable multibiomarker scheme for monitoring OP exposure due to their high sensitivity to OP inhibition and slow recovery to full activity levels following pesticide exposure. Moreover, oximes reactivated the inhibited ChE activity of the earthworms exposed to 12 and 48 mg kg(-1) chlorpyrifos during the first week following pesticide exposure. This methodology is useful for providing evidence for OP-mediated ChE inhibition in individuals with a short history of OP exposure (< or = 1 week); resulting a valuable approach for assessing multiple OP exposure episodes in the field.

New evidences for old biomarkers: effects of several xenobiotics on EROD and AChE activities in Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

The biomarker approach is widely used both in vertebrates and invertebrates for environmental biomonitoring, because it can supply an integrated response for multi-xenobiotics contamination. However, the use of biomarkers requires the identification of every possible variation that can influence the biochemical response, because ecosystems are generally subject to a mixture of pollutants, which can create additive, opposite or competitive effects. In recent years, there has been considerable interest in the use of biomarkers within marine bivalves, while very few data are available for freshwater molluscs. The aim of this research was to investigate changes on EROD and AChE activities in the freshwater bivalve Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) exposed to different pollutants (Arochlor 1260, CB 153 and 126, pp'DDT, chlorpyrifos, carbaryl) at laboratory conditions, in order to standardize the analytical procedures and to highlight eventual interferences on enzyme activities. Chemical concentrations in the mussel soft tissues were analyzed by GC/MS-MS. Main results showed a significant induction of EROD activity when mussels were exposed to 100 ng/l of PCB mixture of Arochlor 1260 and dioxin-like CB 126, but this congener showed also a clear competitive inhibition after 48 h of exposure. Surprisingly, pp'DDT determined a significant decrease of basal EROD activity after only 24 h of exposure, even if it was not possible to discriminate between the effect of the parent compound and that of its metabolites (DDD, DDE). We also found an interaction between the organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos, which does not directly decrease the AChE activity, and terbutilazine. This herbicide increased the biotransformation of the organophosphate compound to its oxidized metabolite (oxon), a much stronger AChE inhibitor. The possible use of the oxime Pyridine-2-Aldoxime Methochloride (2-PAM) to bring back the catalytic activity to basal levels was also demonstrated.

Invertebrate biomarkers: links to toxicosis that predict population decline

The application of biochemical measurements that can be used as individual biomarkers of impaired biological function in invertebrates is reviewed to evaluate whether biochemical biomarkers of aquatic invertebrates can predict changes in natural populations. Biomarkers that measure toxic effects at the molecular level (e.g., the inhibition of brain acetylcholinesterase activity by organophosphorus pesticides) have been shown to provide rapid quantitative predictions of a toxic effect upon individuals in laboratory studies. Such biomarkers should not be used as a replacement for conventional aquatic monitoring techniques, but should be applied as supplementary approaches for demonstrating links between sublethal biochemical and adverse effects in natural populations in field studies. The research challenge for using biomarker measurements in aquatic invertebrates is to predict effects at the population level from effects at the individual level measured upon individuals collected in the field.

Toxic effect and bioavailability of malathion spiked in natural sediments from the Ignacio Ramirez Dam on the snail Stagnicola sp

Malathion (MA) is a widely used insecticide in México. The snail Stagnicola sp is a native species of the Ignacio Ramírez dam (IRD). This work aimed to evaluate the bioavailability and toxicity of MA in sediments of the IRD from the Stagnicola sp snail, taking into account the physicochemical properties of the IRD sediment. The toxic effect of MA on the snail Stagnicola sp was evaluated by biochemical tests of acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity, protein concentration, lipid peroxidation level (LPL), and lipid content; a toxicokinetic study was also carried out. An increment in all biochemical parameters was observed at the beginning of exposure, while at 48 and 72 h a decrement in AchE activity, LPL, and lipid content was observed. The kinetics study showed gradual uptake and rapid elimination of the insecticide in the test organism. The bioconcentration factor and the absorption and elimination constants led to the conclusion that this compound is not being stored in snails. However, at the end of the experiment, the snails without MA exhibited a lack of recovery in AchE activity, which indicates that there is no correlation between the inhibitory pattern of AchE activity and snail MA concentration.

Acetylcholinesterase inhibition in the threeridge mussel (Amblema plicata) by chlorpyrifos: implications for biomonitoring

The effects of chlorpyrifos, an organophosphorus insecticide, were examined on the activity of the nervous system enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the threeridge mussel Amblema plicata in a 24-day laboratory test. Thirty-six mussels in each of seven treatments (18 mussels per duplicate) were exposed to chlorpyrifos (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.6, and 1.2 mg/L), a solvent (acetone), and a solvent-free (well water) control for 12, 24, or 96 h. The activity of AChE was measured in the anterior adductor muscle of eight mussels from each treatment after exposure. To assess potential latent effects, six mussels from each treatment were removed after 24 h of exposure and transferred to untreated water for a 21-day holding period; AChE activity was measured on three mussels from each treatment at 7 and 21 days of the holding period. The activity of AChE in chlorpyrifos-exposed mussels did not differ from controls after 12 or 24 h of exposure (t- test, P>0.05), but was significantly less than controls after 96 h (t- test, P=0.01). AChE activity did not vary among mussels at 24 h of exposure (i.e., Day 0 of holding period) and those at Day 7 and Day 21 of the holding period. Overall changes in AChE activity of mussels during the test were unrelated to individual chlorpyrifos concentrations and exposure times (repeated measure ANOVA; (P=0.06). A power analysis revealed that the sample size must be increased from 2 to 5 replicates (8 to 20 mussels per time interval and test concentration) to increase the probability of detecting significant differences in AChE activity. This calculated increase in sample size has potential implications for future biomonitoring studies with chlorpyrifos and unionid mussels.

Relationship between toxicokinetics of carbaryl and effect on acetylcholinesterase activity in Pomacea patula snail

The 96-h LC(50) value of carbaryl was 14.6 microg/mL for the snail Pomacea patula. Organisms were exposed for 72 h to a low sublethal concentration (0.1 of LC(50)) using a semistatic contamination system; bioconcentration and elimination experiments were performed evaluating simultaneously acetylcholinesterase (ACHase) activity. The inhibition of the digestive gland ACHase reached 76% when the carbaryl concentration in tissue was 3.2 microg/g. The increased enzyme inhibition was observed concomitantly with the bioconcentration of carbaryl until 7 h. ACHase inhibition was linearly dependent on the uptake and bioconcentration of carbaryl (r(2)=0.87). The transfer of snails to carbaryl-free water after 72 h of exposure was followed by rapid monophasic elimination with a half-life of 1.0 h. However, ACHase activity levels never returned to control values. These results revealed that the bioconcentration might play a critical role in contributing to the toxicity of carbaryl.

Effects of insecticide use on breeding birds in Christmas tree plantations in Quebec

: This research, which was carried out in the spring of 1989 and 1990 in seven balsam fir (Abies balsamea) plantations in southeastern Quebec, examines potential deleterious effects of three insecticides (i.e. dimethoate, diazinon and insecticidal soap) on breeding American Robins (Turdus migratorius) (n=87 nests) and Song Sparrows (Melospizsa melodia) (n=41 nests). Through analyses of blood serum cholinesterases (AChE and BChE) activity both prior to and the second day following applications of the two organophosphorus insecticides, we showed that adult American Robins, Song Sparrows and Chipping Sparrows (Spizella passerina) breeding in the treated plantations were exposed to diazinon and dimethoate (p<0.05). Signs of exposure to diazinon (p<0.05) were also found in young American Robins. However, despite sharp reductions in blood ChE (and, in some cases, marked inhibition confirmed by 2-PAM reactivation), no cases of adult mortality were recorded following the treatments. Cases of complete or partial mortality were recorded in American Robin and Song Sparrow nests, even among control birds (non-exposed birds). No mortality was recorded for broods exposed to the insecticidal soap. Abandonment of nests and egg infertility were ruled out as possible causes of mortality. The cases of total mortality observed in American Robin and Song Sparrow broods exposed to dimethoate were similar to those recorded for control nests (18 and 25% compared to 14 and 21%, respectively). However, among American Robin and Song Sparrow nestlings exposed to diazinon, essentially twice as many cases of total mortality (31 and 38%, respectively) were recorded as for the control nests. It appears that American Robin eggs are sensitive to diazinon and dimethoate, particularly when spraying is carried out early in the incubation stage. In the case of the Song Sparrow, it is mainly the nestlings that succumb after diazinon is sprayed on them or when dimethoate applications are made during the egg stage.

The effects of physostigmine and scopolamine on memory for food caches in the black-capped chickadee

The possible effects of anticholinesterases on the central nervous system and, in particular, on learning and memory, have generated considerable interest. Food caching in the black-capped chickadee is an excellent natural paradigm of spatial working memory. Its susceptibility to cholinergically active drugs was explored in the present study. Our ultimate objective was to use food caching as a natural paradigm for the study of the consequences in birds of sublethal exposure to anticholinesterase insecticides. Biochemical analyses showed that administration of the anticholinesterase physostigmine (eserine) led to a short-lived effect, with recovery of brain cholinesterase levels already underway 5 min after an intramuscular injection. Birds administered the anticholinergic scopolamine before caching demonstrated significantly impaired recall compared to birds given physostigmine. Birds given saline only had an intermediate performance. Giving the drugs between caching and recovery had no measurable effect. These findings suggest that effects of cholinergic agents on cache recovery in chickadees are comparable to their effects in tests of working memory in mammals.

Chromatographic analysis of cis- and trans-mevinphos in poisoned wildlife

A method is described for the analysis of the cis- and trans-isomers of mevinphos in baits and avian tissues. The procedure involves extraction of the mevinphos isomers with acetone-dichloromethane (1:1) followed by clean-up on alumina. Bait samples were initially screened by thin-layer chromatography and identity of extracts confirmed by infrared spectrophotometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.