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Aratikatla E, Kalamuddin M, Malhotra P, Mohmmed A, Bhattacharya AK. Enantioselective Synthesis of γ-Phenyl-γ-amino Vinyl Phosphonates and Sulfones and Their Application to the Synthesis of Novel Highly Potent Antimalarials. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:29025-29037. [PMID: 33225134 PMCID: PMC7675543 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c03470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Racemic and enantioselective syntheses of γ-phenyl-γ-amino vinyl phosphonates and sulfones have been achieved using Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons olefination of trityl protected α-phenyl-α-amino aldehydes with tetraethyl methylenediphosphonate and diethyl ((phenylsulfonyl)methyl)phosphonate, respectively, without any racemization. The present strategy has also been successfully applied to the synthesis of peptidyl vinyl phosphonate and peptidyl vinyl sulfone derivatives as potential cysteine protease inhibitors of Chagas disease, K11002, with 100% de. The developed synthetic protocol was further utilized to synthesize hybrid molecules consisting of artemisinin as an inhibitor of major cysteine protease falcipain-2 present in the food vacuole of the malarial parasite. The synthesized artemisinin-dipeptidyl vinyl sulfone hybrid compounds showed effective in vitro inhibition of falcipain-2 and potent parasiticidal efficacies against Plasmodium falciparum in nanomolar ranges. Overall, the developed synthetic protocol could be effectively utilized to design cysteine protease inhibitors not only as novel antimalarial compounds but also to be involved in other life-threatening diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eswar
K. Aratikatla
- Division
of Organic Chemistry, CSIR-National Chemical
Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411 008, India
- Academy
of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-NCL, Pune 411 008, India
| | - Md Kalamuddin
- International
Centre for Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology (ICGEB) Aruna Asif
Ali Marg, New Delhi 100 067, India
| | - Pawan Malhotra
- International
Centre for Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology (ICGEB) Aruna Asif
Ali Marg, New Delhi 100 067, India
| | - Asif Mohmmed
- International
Centre for Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology (ICGEB) Aruna Asif
Ali Marg, New Delhi 100 067, India
| | - Asish K. Bhattacharya
- Division
of Organic Chemistry, CSIR-National Chemical
Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune 411 008, India
- Academy
of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-NCL, Pune 411 008, India
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Schröder J, Noack S, Marhöfer RJ, Mottram JC, Coombs GH, Selzer PM. Identification of semicarbazones, thiosemicarbazones and triazine nitriles as inhibitors of Leishmania mexicana cysteine protease CPB. PLoS One 2013; 8:e77460. [PMID: 24146999 PMCID: PMC3797739 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine proteases of the papain superfamily are present in nearly all eukaryotes. They play pivotal roles in the biology of parasites and inhibition of cysteine proteases is emerging as an important strategy to combat parasitic diseases such as sleeping sickness, Chagas' disease and leishmaniasis. Homology modeling of the mature Leishmania mexicana cysteine protease CPB2.8 suggested that it differs significantly from bovine cathepsin B and thus could be a good drug target. High throughput screening of a compound library against this enzyme and bovine cathepsin B in a counter assay identified four novel inhibitors, containing the warhead-types semicarbazone, thiosemicarbazone and triazine nitrile, that can be used as leads for antiparasite drug design. Covalent docking experiments confirmed the SARs of these lead compounds in an effort to understand the structural elements required for specific inhibition of CPB2.8. This study has provided starting points for the design of selective and highly potent inhibitors of L. mexicana cysteine protease CPB that may also have useful efficacy against other important cysteine proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Schröder
- Molecular Discovery Sciences, MSD Animal Health Innovation GmbH, Schwabenheim, Germany
| | - Sandra Noack
- Molecular Discovery Sciences, MSD Animal Health Innovation GmbH, Schwabenheim, Germany
| | - Richard J. Marhöfer
- Molecular Discovery Sciences, MSD Animal Health Innovation GmbH, Schwabenheim, Germany
| | - Jeremy C. Mottram
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Graham H. Coombs
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (PMS); (GHC)
| | - Paul M. Selzer
- Molecular Discovery Sciences, MSD Animal Health Innovation GmbH, Schwabenheim, Germany
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Interfakultäres Institut für Biochemie, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- * E-mail: (PMS); (GHC)
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Vaccine candidates for leishmaniasis: A review. Int Immunopharmacol 2011; 11:1464-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2011.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2010] [Revised: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 05/09/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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C-terminal domain deletion enhances the protective activity of cpa/cpb loaded solid lipid nanoparticles against Leishmania major in BALB/c mice. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5:e1236. [PMID: 21765963 PMCID: PMC3134432 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2011] [Accepted: 05/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background We have demonstrated that vaccination with pDNA encoding cysteine proteinase Type II (CPA) and Type I (CPB) with its unusual C-terminal extension (CTE) can partially protect BALB/c mice against cutaneous leishmanial infection. Unfortunately, this protection is insufficient to completely control infection without booster injection. Furthermore, in developing vaccines for leishmaniasis, it is necessary to consider a proper adjuvant and/or delivery system to promote an antigen specific immune response. Solid lipid nanoparticles have found their way in drug delivery system development against intracellular infections and cancer, but not Leishmania DNA vaccination. Therefore, undefined effect of cationic solid lipid nanoparticles (cSLN) as an adjuvant in enhancing the immune response toward leishmanial antigens led us to refocus our vaccine development projects. Methodology/Principal Findings Three pDNAs encoding L. major cysteine proteinase type I and II (with or without CTE) were formulated by cSLN. BALB/c mice were immunized twice by 3-week interval, with cSLN-pcDNA-cpa/b, pcDNA-cpa/b, cSLN-pcDNA-cpa/b-CTE, pcDNA-cpa/b-CTE, cSLN, cSLN-pcDNA and PBS. Mice vaccinated with cSLN-pcDNA-cpa/b-CTE showed significantly higher levels of parasite inhibition related to protection with specific Th1 immune response development, compared to other groups. Parasite inhibition was determined by different techniques currently available in exploration vacciation efficacy, i.e., flowcytometry on footpad and lymph node, footpad caliper based measurements and imaging as well as lymph node microtitration assay. Among these techniques, lymph node flowcytometry was found to be the most rapid, sensitive and easily reproducible method for discrimination between the efficacy of vaccination strategies. Conclusions/Significance This report demonstrates cSLN's ability to boost immune response magnitude of cpa/cpb-CTE cocktail vaccination against leishmaniasis so that the average parasite inhibition percent could be increased significantly. Hence, cSLNs can be considered as suitable adjuvant and/or delivery systems for designing third generation cocktail vaccines. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is the most common form of leishmaniasis with an annual incidence of approximately 2 million cases and is endemic in 88 countries, including Iran. CL's continued spread, along with rather ineffectual treatments and drug-resistant variants emergence has increased the need for advanced preventive strategies. We studied Type II cysteine proteinase (CPA) and Type I (CPB) with its C-terminal extension (CTE) as cocktail DNA vaccine against murine and canine leishmaniasis. However, adjuvants' success in enhancing immune responses to selected antigens led us to refocus our vaccine development programs. Herein, we discuss cationic solid lipid nanoparticles' (cSLN) ability to improve vaccine-induced protective efficacy against CL and subsequent lesion size and parasite load reduction in BALB/c mice. For this work, we evaluated five different conventional as well as novel parasite detection techniques, i.e., footpad imaging, footpad flowcytometry and lymph node flowcytometry for disease progression assessments. Vaccination with cSLN-cpa/cpb-CTE formulation showed highest parasite inhibition at 3-month post vaccination. Immunized mice showed reduced IL-5 level and significant IFN-ã increase, compared to control groups. We think our study represents a potential future and a major step forward in vaccine development against leishmaniasis.
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Pereira IO, Assis DM, Juliano MA, Cunha RL, Barbieri CL, do Sacramento LV, Marques MJ, dos Santos MH. Natural Products fromGarcinia brasiliensisasLeishmaniaProtease Inhibitors. J Med Food 2011; 14:557-62. [DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2010.0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ivan O. Pereira
- Department of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Department of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Botany, São Paulo State University Julio de Mesquita Filho, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Diego M. Assis
- Department of Biophysics, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria A. Juliano
- Department of Biophysics, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Clara L. Barbieri
- Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luis V.S. do Sacramento
- Department of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Botany, São Paulo State University Julio de Mesquita Filho, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos J. Marques
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marcelo H. dos Santos
- Department of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Medicinal Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Wang Z, Abubucker S, Martin J, Wilson RK, Hawdon J, Mitreva M. Characterizing Ancylostoma caninum transcriptome and exploring nematode parasitic adaptation. BMC Genomics 2010; 11:307. [PMID: 20470405 PMCID: PMC2882930 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-11-307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2009] [Accepted: 05/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hookworm infection is one of the most important neglected diseases in developing countries, with approximately 1 billion people infected worldwide. To better understand hookworm biology and nematode parasitism, the present study generated a near complete transcriptome of the canine hookworm Ancylostoma caninum to a very high coverage using high throughput technology, and compared it to those of the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and the parasite Brugia malayi. RESULTS The generated transcripts from four developmental stages, infective L3, serum stimulated L3, adult male and adult female, covered 93% of the A. caninum transcriptome. The broad diversity among nematode transcriptomes was confirmed, and an impact of parasitic adaptation on transcriptome diversity was inferred. Intra-population analysis showed that A. caninum has higher coding sequence diversity than humans. Examining the developmental expression profiles of A. caninum revealed major transitions in gene expression from larval stages to adult. Adult males expressed the highest number of selectively expressed genes, but adult female expressed the highest number of selective parasitism-related genes. Genes related to parasitism adaptation and A. caninum specific genes exhibited more expression selectivity while those conserved in nematodes tend to be consistently expressed. Parasitism related genes were expressed more selectively in adult male and female worms. The comprehensive analysis of digital expression profiles along with transcriptome comparisons enabled identification of a set of parasitism genes encoding secretory proteins in animal parasitic nematode. CONCLUSIONS This study validated the usage of deep sequencing for gene expression profiling. Parasitic adaptation of the canine hookworm is related to its diversity and developmental dynamics. This comprehensive comparative genomic and expression study substantially improves our understanding of the basic biology and parasitism of hookworms and, is expected, in the long run, to accelerate research toward development of vaccines and novel anthelmintics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengyuan Wang
- The Genome Center, Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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8
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Fricker SP, Mosi RM, Cameron BR, Baird I, Zhu Y, Anastassov V, Cox J, Doyle PS, Hansell E, Lau G, Langille J, Olsen M, Qin L, Skerlj R, Wong RSY, Santucci Z, McKerrow JH. Metal compounds for the treatment of parasitic diseases. J Inorg Biochem 2008; 102:1839-45. [PMID: 18684510 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2008.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2007] [Revised: 05/22/2008] [Accepted: 05/26/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon P Fricker
- Genzyme Corporation, 49 New York Avenue, P.O. Box 9322, Framingham, MA 01701-9322, USA.
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Abstract
Leishmaniaare protozoan parasites spread by a sandfly insect vector and causing a spectrum of diseases collectively known as leishmaniasis. The disease is a significant health problem in many parts of the world resulting in an estimated 12 million new cases each year. Current treatment is based on chemotherapy, which is difficult to administer, expensive and becoming ineffective due to the emergence of drug resistance. Leishmaniasis is considered one of a few parasitic diseases likely to be controllable by vaccination. The relatively uncomplicated leishmanial life cycle and the fact that recovery from infection renders the host resistant to subsequent infection indicate that a successful vaccine is feasible. Extensive evidence from studies in animal models indicates that solid protection can be achieved by immunisation with protein or DNA vaccines. However, to date no such vaccine is available despite substantial efforts by many laboratories. Advances in our understanding ofLeishmaniapathogenesis and generation of host protective immunity, together with the completedLeishmaniagenome sequence open new avenues for vaccine research. The major remaining challenges are the translation of data from animal models to human disease and the transition from the laboratory to the field. This review focuses on advances in anti-leishmania vaccine development over the recent years and examines current problems hampering vaccine development and implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kedzierski
- Infection and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville 3050, Melbourne, Australia.
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Owusu-Apenten R. Colorimetric Analysis of Protein Sulfhydyl Groups in Milk: Applications and Processing Effects. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2005; 45:1-23. [PMID: 15730186 DOI: 10.1080/10408690590900126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Methods for protein sulfhydryl (SH) group analysis in food systems have been largely overlooked. Nevertheless, changes in SH group concentration affect both physical and nutritional characteristics of high protein foods and ingredients. Food scientists and technologists require improved understanding of protein SH chemistry in order to design processes that minimize loss of thiol groups. This article surveys colorimetric methods for food protein SH group analysis with applications to fluid milk and dried milk powder. Most colorimetric assays (chloromeribenzoate, pyridine disulfide, Nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole, papain reactivation assay, etc.) were found to be inferior to the Ellman method based on the use of 5,5'dithio (bis-2 nitro benzoic acid). Techniques for SH group analysis in fluid milk and dried milk powder are described, along with typical results, their interpretations, and current research related to processing effects and the role of milk SH content on a wider range of technological issues, such as development of cooked flavors, fouling and cleaning of plate heat exchanges, protein-protein interactions, and the storage stability. Finally, a number of areas requiring further research are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Owusu-Apenten
- Department of Food Science, Borland Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
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Zadeh-Vakili A, Taheri T, Taslimi Y, Doustdari F, Salmanian AH, Rafati S. Immunization with the hybrid protein vaccine, consisting of Leishmania major cysteine proteinases Type I (CPB) and Type II (CPA), partially protects against leishmaniasis. Vaccine 2004; 22:1930-40. [PMID: 15121305 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2003.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2003] [Accepted: 11/06/2003] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cysteine proteinases (CPs) are enzymes that belong to the papain superfamily, which are found in a number of organisms from prokaryotes to mammals. On the parasitic protozoan Leishmania, extensive studies have shown that CPs are involved in parasite survival, replication and the onset of disease, and have, therefore, been considered as attractive drugs and/or vaccine targets for the control of leishmaniasis. We have previously shown that cysteine proteinases, Type I (CPB) and Type II (CPA), in Leishmania major (L. major), delivered as recombinant proteins or in plasmid DNA, induce partial protection against infection with the parasite in BALB/c mice. We had shown that the level of protection was greater if a cocktail of cpa and cpb containing DNA constructs was used. Therefore, to reduce the costs associated with the production of these vaccine candidates, a construct was developed, whereby the cpa and cpb genes were fused together to give rise to a single hybrid protein. The genes were fused in tandem where the C-terminal extension (CTE), encoding region of CPB, was located at the 3' of the fused genes, and ultimately expressed in the bacterial expression construct pET-23a. The expression of the CPA/B hybrid protein (60 kDa) was verified using rabbit anti-CPA and anti-CPB antibodies by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting. The protective potential of the CPA/B hybrid protein against the infection with Leishmania was then assessed in BALB/c mice. The animals were vaccinated with CPA/B, challenged with live L. major promastigotes, and the degree of protection was examined by measuring footpad lesion sizes. It was found that there was a delay in the expansion of lesions size compared to control groups. Furthermore, an immunological analysis of antibody isotypes, before and after infection, showed high levels of IgG2a compared to IgG1 (more than five-fold) in the CPA/B hybrid protein vaccinated group. In addition, a predominant Th1 immune response characterized by in vitro IFN-gamma production was observed, along with little, if any, IL-5 production. This finding indicates that the hybrid CPA/B is able to elicit a protective immune response against L. major in the mice model. In addition, 54% of individuals tested, who had recovered from cutaneous leishmaniasis, produced more than 50 pg/ml IFN-gamma, in response to the CPA/B hybrid protein in an in vitro assay, demonstrating the importance of cysteine proteinases as targets of immune response in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azita Zadeh-Vakili
- Department of Immunology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, P.O. Box 11365-6699, Tehran, Iran
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12
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Nakhaee A, Taheri T, Taghikhani M, Mohebali M, Salmanian AH, Fasel N, Rafati S. Humoral and cellular immune responses against Type I cysteine proteinase of Leishmania infantum are higher in asymptomatic than symptomatic dogs selected from a naturally infected population. Vet Parasitol 2004; 119:107-23. [PMID: 14746971 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2003.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Canids are natural reservoirs of Leishmania infantum and have been promoted as experimental hosts to decipher the pathogenesis of human visceral leishmaniasis (VL). In this study, the presence of IgG antibodies as well as the presence of mononuclear leukocytes reactive to different cysteine proteinases (CPs) were examined in 13 L. infantum-infected dogs (six with symptoms, seven asymptomatic). Cysteine proteinases which belong to papain-like enzymes known as clan CA are the most studied CPs of parasite protozoa. These molecules are expressed by the intracellular stages of the parasite and could be immunogenic. We studied Type II CP (CPA) and Type I CP (CPB) with its long C-terminal extension (CTE) which could be highly immunogenic. We showed that the level of antibodies reactive to rCPA is low in both symptomatic and asymptomatic dogs. In contrast, when CPB and CTE were used as antigens, the level of total IgG (with IgG2 superior to IgG1) reached higher values in asymptomatic dogs than in dogs with VL. While the peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) reactivity was significant when cultured in the presence of freezed/thawed (F/T) lysate, it remained low in presence of CP although always higher for PBMC recovered from asymptomatic dogs. We showed the importance of CPB and CTE in particular as a target of immune response and their potential use for serodiagnosis in asymptomatic dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Nakhaee
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran
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13
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Reddick JJ, Cheng J, Roush WR. Relative rates of Michael reactions of 2'-(phenethyl)thiol with vinyl sulfones, vinyl sulfonate esters, and vinyl sulfonamides relevant to vinyl sulfonyl cysteine protease inhibitors. Org Lett 2003; 5:1967-70. [PMID: 12762698 DOI: 10.1021/ol034555l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
[reaction: see text] The relative rates of Michael additions of 2'-(phenethyl)thiol to representative vinyl sulfonyl Michael acceptors were measured. The dependence of the reactivity of the Michael acceptor on the nature of the sulfonyl R substituent was determined in order to evaluate the effect of these substituents on the inactivation kinetics of comparably substituted vinyl sulfonyl cysteine protease inhibitors. The rates of these Michael additions vary over 3 orders of magnitude, with phenyl vinyl sulfonate esters (R = OPh) being ca. 3000-fold more reactive than N-benzyl vinyl sulfonamides (R = NHBn).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason J Reddick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, USA
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14
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Rafati S, Kariminia A, Seyde-Eslami S, Narimani M, Taheri T, Lebbatard M. Recombinant cysteine proteinases-based vaccines against Leishmania major in BALB/c mice: the partial protection relies on interferon gamma producing CD8(+) T lymphocyte activation. Vaccine 2002; 20:2439-47. [PMID: 12057598 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00189-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Together with poloxamer 407 as adjuvant the recombinant type I (rCPB) or type II (rCPA) cysteine proteinases of Leishmania major were screened as potential vaccines against L. major in a mouse model. The vaccines were delivered subcutaneously twice at 3 weeks intervals. Three weeks after booster injection, 5x10(5) stationary phase L. major promastigotes were inoculated subcutaneously in one footpad. Using the footpad thickness increase to monitor the clinical outcome/cutaneous lesion at site of L. major delivery, it was possible to document that rCPB but not rCPA allowed BALB/c mice to mount a partial protective response: indeed over the period under study (weeks 1-12) a clear delay was noticed after the immunization with rCPB. This partial protective effect was no more detectable if CD8 depleting antibody was given intravenously to rCPB-immunized mice, at the time of parasite challenge. Seven weeks after challenge, the draining lymph nodes were monitored for their frequencies of IFN-gamma positive CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes using PMA and ionomycin as re-activating signals: interestingly the partial protection achieved in BALB/c mice immunized with rCPB together with poloxamer was correlated only to one immunological parameter, namely the higher frequency of IFN-gamma producing CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Of note also, in the lymph node draining the L. major-loaded footpad of C57BL/6 mice otherwise known to develop a transient lesion, the frequency of IFN-gamma producing CD8(+) T lymphocytes reach similar value 7 weeks after challenge and in absence of any prior immunization. Taken together, it was shown that the induced partial protection was mainly dependent on IFN-gamma producing CD8(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sima Rafati
- Department of Immunology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
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15
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Roush WR, Cheng J, Knapp-Reed B, Alvarez-Hernandez A, McKerrow JH, Hansell E, Engel JC. Potent second generation vinyl sulfonamide inhibitors of the trypanosomal cysteine protease cruzain. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2001; 11:2759-62. [PMID: 11591518 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(01)00566-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A new family of potent N-alkoxyvinylsulfonamide inhibitors of cruzain have been developed. Inhibitor 13 has a second order inactivation rate constant of 6,480,000s(-1)M(-1) versus cruzain, and is also highly effective against Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes in a tissue culture assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- W R Roush
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 48109, USA.
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Design, Synthesis and Evaluation of d-Homophenylalanyl Epoxysuccinate Inhibitors of the Trypanosomal Cysteine Protease Cruzain. Tetrahedron 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(00)00882-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abstract
Amebiasis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the tropical world. Entamoeba histolytica is now recognized as a separate species from the morphologically identical E. dispar, which cannot invade. Cysteine proteinases are a key virulence factor of E. histolytica and play a role in intestinal invasion by degrading the extracellular matrix and circumventing the host immune response through cleavage of secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), IgG, and activation of complement. Cysteine proteinases are encoded by at least seven genes, several of which are found in E. histolytica but not E. dispar. A number of new animal models, including the formation of liver abscesses in SCID mice and intestinal infection in human intestinal xenografts, have proven useful to confirm the critical role of cysteine proteinases in invasion. Detailed structural analysis of cysteine proteinases should provide further insights into their biochemical function and may facilitate the design of specific inhibitors which could be used as potential chemotherapeutic agents in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Que
- Departments of Pathology and Medicine, University of California San Diego Medical Center, San Diego, CA 92103-8416, USA
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Stoka V, Turk B, McKerrow JH, Björk I, Cazzulo JJ, Turk V. The high stability of cruzipain against pH-induced inactivation is not dependent on its C-terminal domain. FEBS Lett 2000; 469:29-32. [PMID: 10708750 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(00)01221-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Unlike mammalian lysosomal cysteine proteases, the trypanosomal cysteine protease cruzipain contains a 130-amino acid residue C-terminal domain, in addition to the catalytic domain, and it is stable at neutral pH. The endogenous (with C-terminal domain) and recombinant (without C-terminal domain) cruzipains exhibit similar stabilities at both acid (k(inac)=3.1x10(-3) s(-1) and 4.4x10(-3) s(-1) at pH 2.75 for endogenous and recombinant cruzipain, respectively) and alkaline pH (k(inac)=3.0x10(-3) s(-1) and 3. 7x10(-3) s(-1) at pH 9.15 for endogenous and recombinant cruzipain, respectively). The pH-induced inactivation, which is a highly pH dependent first order process, is irreversible and accompanied by significant changes of secondary and tertiary structure as revealed by circular dichroism measurements. The different stability of cruzipain as compared to related proteases, is therefore due mainly to the different number, nature and distribution of charged residues within the catalytic domain and not due to addition of the C-terminal domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Stoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, Sl-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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19
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A cysteine protease from myxosporean degrades host myofibrils in vitro. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0305-0491(99)00062-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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20
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Tort J, Brindley PJ, Knox D, Wolfe KH, Dalton JP. Proteinases and associated genes of parasitic helminths. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 1999; 43:161-266. [PMID: 10214692 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)60243-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Many parasites have deployed proteinases to accomplish some of the tasks imposed by a parasitic life style, including tissue penetration, digestion of host tissue for nutrition and evasion of host immune responses. Information on proteinases from trematodes, cestodes and nematode parasites is reviewed, concentrating on those worms of major medical and economical importance. Their biochemical characterization is discussed, along with their putative biological roles and, where available, their associated genes. For example, proteinases expressed by the various stages of the schistosome life-cycle, in particular the well-characterized cercarial elastase which is involved in the penetration of the host skin and the variety of proteinases, such as cathepsin B (Sm31), cathepsin L1, cathepsin L2, cathepsin D, cathepsin C and legumain (Sm32), which are believed to be involved in the catabolism of host haemoglobin. The various endo- and exoproteinases of Fasciola hepatica, the causative agent of liver fluke disease, are reviewed, and recent reports of how these enzymes have been successfully employed in cocktail vaccines are discussed. The various proteinases of cestodes and of the diverse superfamilies of parasitic nematodes are detailed, with special attention being given to those parasites for which most is known, including species of Taenia, Echinococcus, Spirometra, Necator, Acylostoma and Haemonchus. By far the largest number of papers in the literature and entries to the sequence data bases dealing with proteinases of parasitic helminths report on enzymes belonging to the papain superfamily of cysteine proteinases. Accordingly, the final section of the review is devoted to a phylogenetic analysis of this superfamily using over 150 published sequences. This analysis shows that the papain superfamily can be divided into two major branches. Branch A contains the cathepin Bs, the cathepsin Cs and a novel family termed cathepsin Xs, while Branch B contains the cruzipains, cathepsin Ls, papain-like and aleurain/cathepsin H-like proteinases. The relationships of the helminth proteinases, and similar proteinases from protozoan parasites and other organisms, within these groups are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Tort
- School of Biological Sciences, Dublin City University, Republic of Ireland
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21
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Abstract
The gene structure of a cathepsin L of the shrimp Penaeus vannamei has been determined by the polymerase chain reaction. It comprises six exons of various lengths spanning a total of 1792bp. This architecture is homologous to that of rat cathepsin L, three conserved sites of intron position have been effectively identified, with the exception of the third intron break-point located immediately after the cysteinyl active site. In contrast, no similarity is observed with Drosophila or Plasmodium cathepsin L-like gene organizations. This gene expresses a major cathepsin L enzyme in the hepatopancreas. The last intron is polymorphic, suggesting the presence of at least three different genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Le Boulay
- Station de Biologie Marine, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle et Collège de France, BP 225, 29910, Concarneau, France
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22
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Engel JC, Doyle PS, Hsieh I, McKerrow JH. Cysteine protease inhibitors cure an experimental Trypanosoma cruzi infection. J Exp Med 1998; 188:725-34. [PMID: 9705954 PMCID: PMC2213346 DOI: 10.1084/jem.188.4.725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 306] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/1998] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas' disease. The major protease, cruzain, is a target for the development of new chemotherapy. We report the first successful treatment of an animal model of Chagas' disease with inhibitors designed to inactivate cruzain. Treatment with fluoromethyl ketone-derivatized pseudopeptides rescued mice from lethal infection. The optimal pseudopeptide scaffold was phenylalanine-homophenylalanine. To achieve cure of infection, this pseudopeptide scaffold was incorporated in a less toxic vinyl sulfone derivative. N-methyl piperazine-Phe-homoPhe-vinyl sulfone phenyl also rescued mice from a lethal infection. Six of the treated mice survived over nine months, three without further treatment. Three mice that had entered the chronic stage of infection were retreated with a 20-d regimen. At the conclusion of the experiments, five of the six mice had repeated negative hemacultures, indicative of parasitological cure. Studies of the effect of inhibitors on the intracellular amastigote form suggest that the life cycle is interrupted because of inhibitor arrest of normal autoproteolytic cruzain processing at the level of the Golgi complex. Parasites recovered from the hearts of treated mice showed the same abnormalities as those treated in vitro. No abnormalities were noted in the Golgi complex of host cells. This study provides proof of concept that cysteine protease inhibitors can be given at therapeutic doses to animals to selectively arrest a parasitic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Engel
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, California 94143, USA.
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23
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Mottram JC, Brooks DR, Coombs GH. Roles of cysteine proteinases of trypanosomes and Leishmania in host-parasite interactions. Curr Opin Microbiol 1998; 1:455-60. [PMID: 10066510 DOI: 10.1016/s1369-5274(98)80065-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosomes and Leishmania contain an abundance of stage-regulated cysteine proteinases encoded by several gene families. Analysis of parasites rendered defective in cysteine proteinase function, either through genetic manipulation or through the use of specific inhibitors, has revealed roles for the enzymes in parasite virulence, in modulation of the host's immune response and in parasite differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Mottram
- Wellcome Unit of Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, The Anderson College, Glasgow G11 6NU, Scotland, UK.
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24
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Stoka V, McKerrow JH, Cazzulo JJ, Turk V. Substrate inhibition of cruzipain is not affected by the C-terminal domain. FEBS Lett 1998; 429:129-33. [PMID: 9650575 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(98)00532-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Endogenous and recombinant cruzipain, the major cysteine proteinase from the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, exhibit differences in the protein and circular dichroism spectra probably attributed to the absence of the C-terminal domain in the recombinant enzyme. Substrate hydrolysis of both molecules at 25 degrees C and neutral pH obeyed Michaelis-Menten kinetics whereas significant substrate inhibition was observed above neutral pH. The results suggest that substrate inhibition of cruzipain is pH-dependent, and that the C-terminal domain does not play an essential role in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Stoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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25
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Selzer PM, Chen X, Chan VJ, Cheng M, Kenyon GL, Kuntz ID, Sakanari JA, Cohen FE, McKerrow JH. Leishmania major: molecular modeling of cysteine proteases and prediction of new nonpeptide inhibitors. Exp Parasitol 1997; 87:212-21. [PMID: 9371086 DOI: 10.1006/expr.1997.4220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The crystal structures of papain, cruzain, and human liver cathepsin B were used to build homology-based enzyme models of a cathepsin L-like cysteine protease (cpL) and a cathepsin B-like cysteine protease (cpB) from the protozoan parasite Leishmania major. Although structurally a member of the cathepsin B subfamily, the L. major cpB is not able to cleave synthetic substrates having an arginine in position P2. This biochemical property correlates with the prediction of a glycine instead of a glutamic acid at position 205 (papain numbering). The modeled active sites of the L. major cpB and cpL were used to screen the Available Chemicals Directory (a database of about 150,000 commercially available compounds) for potential cysteine protease inhibitors, using DOCK3.5. Based on both steric and force field considerations, 69 compounds were selected. Of these, 18 showed IC50's between 50 and 100 microM and 3 had IC50's below 50 microM. A secondary library of compounds, originally derived from a structural screen against the homologous protease of Plasmodium falciparum (falcipain), and subsequently expanded by combinatorial chemistry, was also screened. Three inhibitors were identified which were not only effective against the L. major protease but also inhibited parasite growth at 5-50 microM.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Selzer
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco 94143, USA.
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26
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Bart G, Frame MJ, Carter R, Coombs GH, Mottram JC. Cathepsin B-like cysteine proteinase-deficient mutants of Leishmania mexicana. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1997; 88:53-61. [PMID: 9274867 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-6851(97)00072-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Mutants null for the cathepsin B-like cysteine proteinase gene (cpc) of Leishmania mexicana have been generated by targeted gene disruption. The gene deletion was confirmed using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method with cpc-specific primers and genomic DNA isolated from the mutants. cpc was re-expressed in the null mutants from an episomal vector. Re-expression of the enzyme (CPC) was detected by Western blotting with a specific anti-peptide antiserum. The cpc null mutants grew apparently normally as promastigotes and amastigotes in axenic cultures, but they showed greatly reduced infectivity to macrophages in vitro with only a low percentage of the cells being infected. Re-expression of cpc in the null mutant increased the parasite's infectivity in vitro. The null mutant parasites formed lesions in mice at a similar rate as wild type parasites, although somewhat smaller lesions were produced. The results suggest that although the cysteine proteinase encoded by cpc plays a role in the parasite's interaction with macrophages it alone is not crucial for infectivity or virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Bart
- Wellcome Unit of Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, The Anderson College, UK
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27
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Mottram JC, Frame MJ, Brooks DR, Tetley L, Hutchison JE, Souza AE, Coombs GH. The multiple cpb cysteine proteinase genes of Leishmania mexicana encode isoenzymes that differ in their stage regulation and substrate preferences. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:14285-93. [PMID: 9162063 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.22.14285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The cpb genes of Leishmania mexicana encode stage-regulated, cathepsin L-like cysteine proteinases that are leishmanial virulence factors. Field inversion gel electrophoresis and genomic mapping indicate that there are 19 cpb genes arranged in a tandem array. Five genes from the array have been sequenced and their expression analyzed. The first two genes, cpb1 and cpb2, differ significantly from the remaining 17 copies (cpb3-cpb19) in that: 1) they are expressed predominantly in metacyclic promastigotes (the form in the insect vector which is infective to mammalian macrophages) rather than amastigotes (the form that parasitizes mammals); 2) they encode enzymes with a truncation in the COOH-terminal extension, an unusual feature of these cysteine proteinases of trypanosomatids. Transfection of cpb1 into a cpb null mutant resulted in expression of an active enzyme that was shown by immunogold labeling with anti-CPB antibodies to be targeted to large lysosomes. This demonstrates that the 100-amino acid COOH-terminal extension is not essential for the activation or activity of the enzyme or for its correct intracellular trafficking. Transfection into the cpb null mutant of different copies of cpb and analysis of the phenotype of the lines showed that individual isoenzymes differ in their substrate preferences and ability to restore the loss of virulence associated with the null mutant. Comparison of the predicted amino acid sequences of the isoenzymes implicates five residues located in the mature domain (Asn18, Asp60, Asn61, Ser64, and Tyr84) with differences in the activities of the encoded isoenzymes. The results suggest that the individual isoenzymes have distinct roles in the parasite's interaction with its host. This complexity reflects the adaptation of cathepsin L-like cysteine proteinases to diverse functions in parasitic protozoa.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Mottram
- Wellcome Unit of Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, The Anderson College, Glasgow G11 6NU, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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28
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Irvine JW, North MJ, Coombs GH. Use of inhibitors to identify essential cysteine proteinases of Trichomonas vaginalis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1997; 149:45-50. [PMID: 9103977 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1997.tb10306.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Designing cysteine proteinase inhibitors as antitrichomonal drugs requires knowledge of which cysteine proteinases are essential to the parasite. In an attempt to obtain such information, the effects of a number of cysteine proteinase inhibitors on trichomonad growth in vitro and proteinase activity were investigated. The broad specificity inhibitor trans-epoxysuccinyl-L-leucylamido-(4-guanidino)butane (known as E-64) had little effect on growth of Trichomonas vaginalis (27% inhibition at 280 microM, none at 28 microM) even though the addition of 2.8 microM E-64 to growth medium resulted in inhibition of all but two (apparent molecular masses: 35 k and 49 k) of the parasite's proteinases detected by gelatin SDS-PAGE. This shows that many of the parasite's cysteine proteinases are not essential for growth in axenic culture. In contrast, a peptidyl acyloxymethyl ketone, N-benzoyloxycarbonyl-Phe-Ala-CH2OCO-(2,6,-(CF3)2)Ph, at 16 microM killed T. vaginalis and severely inhibited growth of Tritrichomonas foetus. Exposure of Trichomonas vaginalis to 16 microM of this compound for 1 h resulted in both the 35 kDa and 49 kDa proteinases being inhibited, whereas some other proteinases were unaffected. Similar distinctions between the inhibitor sensitivity of the parasite's cysteine proteinases were apparent when a biotinylated peptidyl diazomethyl ketone was used to detect active proteinases. These data suggest that the growth inhibitory effects of the peptidyl acyloxymethyl ketone are through inhibition of cysteine proteinases that are not affected when the parasites are grown in the presence of E-64. At least one of these enzymes, which include the 35 kDa and 49 kDa cysteine proteinases, must be essential and so a suitable target for chemotherapeutic attack.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Irvine
- Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, UK
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