Acute lesions in rats caused by 3-amino-1,2,4-benzotriazine-1,4-dioxide (SR 4233) or nitromin: a comparison with rates of reduction in microsomal systems from target organs

Molecular mechanisms of tirapazamine (SR 4233, Win 59075)-induced hepatocyte toxicity under low oxygen concentrations

Previously we showed that tirapazamine (SR 4233, Win 59075) is cytotoxic towards hepatocytes under conditions of hypoxia but not in 10% or 95% oxygen and that bioreduction by DT-diaphorase or cytochrome P450 is not a major pathway. In the present study, we report that tirapazamine is highly cytotoxic to isolated rat hepatocytes maintained under 1% oxygen and the molecular cytotoxic mechanism has been elucidated. Cytotoxicity was prevented by the cytochrome P450 2E1 inhibitors phenyl imidazole, isoniazid, isopropanol or ethanol, suggesting that cytochrome P450 2E1 catalysed tirapazamine reductive bioactivation. By contrast, dicoumarol, a DT-diaphorase inhibitor, markedly increased tirapazamine-induced cytotoxicity. Cytotoxicity was also inhibited in normal but not DT-diaphorase-inactivated hepatocytes by increasing cellular NADH levels with lactate or ethanol or the mitochondrial respiratory inhibitors. Evidence that oxygen activation contributed to cytotoxicity was that glutathione oxidation occurred well before cytotoxicity ensued and that tirapazamine was more cytotoxic towards catalase- or glutathione reductase-inactivated hepatocytes. Furthermore, polyphenolic antioxidants such as quercetin, caffeic acid or purpurogallin, the radical trap Tempol or the iron chelator desferrioxamine prevented tirapazamine-mediated cytotoxicity. However, the antioxidants diphenylphenylenediamine, butylated hydroxyanisole or butylated hydroxytoluene did not prevent cytotoxicity and malonaldehyde formation was not increased, suggesting that lipid peroxidation was not important. The above results suggest that DT-diaphorase detoxifies tirapazamine whereas reduced cytochrome P450 reduces tirapazamine to a nitrogen oxide anion radical which forms cytotoxic reactive oxygen species as a result of redox cycling.

High-performance liquid chromatographic method for the separation of chlorambucil and its N-oxide prodrug

A reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic method is described to distinguish chlorambucil N-oxide from the parent chlorambucil and quantitate both after separation from biological samples. The influence of solvent pH, alcohol, acid and ion-pairing agent on the separation is described. The stability of chlorambucil and its N-oxide in buffers and alcohols, as well as stability during filtration is discussed with potential application for metabolic studies.

Molecular mechanisms of SR 4233-induced hepatocyte toxicity under aerobic versus hypoxic conditions

SR 4233 (3-amino-1,2,4-benzotriazine-1,4-dioxide) is the lead compound of the benzotriazene-di-N oxides which are selectively toxic to tumour cells under hypoxic conditions. However much higher concentrations given to rats caused bone marrow toxicity and necrosis of the low oxygen Zone 3 part of the liver. In the following effects of SR 4233 on hepatocytes under hypoxic vs aerobic conditions have been compared. (1) SR 4233 did not affect hepatocyte viability (as determined by plasma membrane disruption) or glutathione levels under aerobic conditions. SR 4233 however induced cyanide-resistant respiration, an indicator of redox cycling mediated oxidative stress and became cytotoxic if hepatocyte catalase or glutathione reductase was inactivated. Glutathione oxidation occurred well before cytotoxicity ensued. Addition of ascorbate markedly enhanced SR 4233 cytotoxicity to these compromised hepatocytes. (2) In contrast, SR 4233 was highly toxic to hypoxic hepatocytes. Addition of ascorbate to enhance SR 4233 reduction also caused a marked increase in hepatocyte toxicity and an SR 4233 radical was detected with ESR spectroscopy. SR 4233 cellular reduction and toxicity was prevented with fructose or inhibitors of NADPH:cytochrome P-450 reductase. Inactivation of catalase or glutathione reductase had no effect on SR 4233 toxicity and hepatocyte GSH was not oxidised indicating oxidative stress did not occur during hypoxic SR 4233 hepatocyte toxicity. (3) The lack of SR 4233 cytotoxicity under aerobic conditions could probably be attributed to the detoxification of the SR 4233 radical by mitochondrial oxidation as SR 4233, but not its metabolite SR 4317 markedly increased state III and IV mitochondrial respiration in the presence of NADH. The increased respiration was inhibited by the respiratory inhibitors KCN and antimycin A but not by rotenone. Furthermore SR 4233 cytotoxicity under aerobic conditions was markedly increased by partially inhibiting hepatocytes respiration with cyanide but not rotenone.