Deterioration of mixed cryoglobulinemia during treatment with interferon-alpha-2a

Hepatitis C virus and its cutaneous manifestations: treatment in the direct-acting antiviral era

New all-oral direct-acting antivirals (DAA) have changed the hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment landscape. Given that dermatologists frequently encounter HCV-infected patients, knowledge of the current treatment options and their utility in treating HCV-associated dermatologic disorders is important. In addition to highlighting the new treatment options, we review four classically HCV-associated dermatologic disorders - mixed cryoglobulinaemia (MC), lichen planus (LP), porphyria cutanea tarda (PCT) and necrolytic acral erythema (NAE) - and examine the role for all-oral direct-acting antiviral (DAA) regimens in their treatment. A literature search of English-language publications was conducted of the PubMed and EMBASE databases using search terms including 'hepatitis C', 'direct acting antivirals', 'cutaneous', 'mixed cryoglobulinemia', 'necrolytic acral erythema', 'lichen planus', 'porphyria cutanea tarda', 'rash', as well as specific drug names, related terms and abbreviations. Currently, limited data exist on the use of DAAs in HCV-infected patients with cutaneous side-effects, although treatment of the underlying HCV is now recommended for nearly all patients, with the new drugs offering much-improved dosage schedules and side-effect profiles. The most data exist for MC, in which several studies suggest that DAAs and achievement of sustained virologic response (SVR) improve cutaneous symptoms. Studies of both older and newer regimens are limited by their small size, retrospective nature, lack of appropriate controls and wide variability in study protocols. Given the strong association, screening for HCV should be considered in patients with MC, LP, PCT and NAE.

International therapeutic guidelines for patients with HCV-related extrahepatic disorders. A multidisciplinary expert statement

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is both hepatotrophic and lymphotropic virus that causes liver as well extrahepatic manifestations including cryoglobulinemic vasculitis, the most frequent and studied condition, lymphoma, and neurologic, cardiovascular, endocrine-metabolic or renal diseases. HCV-extrahepatic manifestations (HCV-EHMs) may severely affect the overall prognosis, while viral eradication significantly reduces non-liver related deaths. Different clinical manifestations may coexist in the same patient. Due to the variety of HCV clinical manifestations, a multidisciplinary approach along with appropriate therapeutic strategies are required. In the era of interferon-free anti-HCV treatments, international recommendations for the therapeutic management of HCV-EHMs are needed. This implies the need to define the best criteria to use antivirals and/or other therapeutic approaches. The present recommendations, based on qualified expert experience and specific literature, will focus on etiological (antiviral) therapies and/or traditional pathogenetic treatments that still maintain their therapeutic utility.

[Treatment options for chronic hepatitis C virus infection]

INTRODUCTION

The incidence of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is rather high. Its most frequent consequences are chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma.

TREATMENT OF CHRONIC HCV INFECTION

In treatment of chronic HCV infection, interferons have antiviral, anriproliferative, and immunoregulatory action. Within the cell, they induce protein synthesis, inhibiting viral replication. The most important among them are RNA dependent protein kinase, and eukaryotic initiation factor. However, viral proteins prevent their phosphorylation and activation. In order to overcome this problem, treatment is prolonged, higher doses of lFN are used, as well as induction therapy. The optimal period for viral response is 52 weeks, while induction therapy has shown controversial results.

Vasculitic complications of interferon-alpha treatment for chronic hepatitis C virus infection: case report and review of the literature

Chronic infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) may be complicated by the development of systemic vasculitis. Vasculitis is either caused by mixed cryoglobulinemia or a non-cryoglobulinemic vasculitis resembling polyarteritis nodosa (PAN). Antiviral treatment with interferon-alpha (IFN) and subsequent clearing of HCV mostly leads to improvement of vasculitic symptoms, but vasculitis may also be exacerbated and even cases of new onset of vasculitis may occur. Exacerbations of both cryoglobulinemic and PAN-type vasculitis in chronic HCV infection have been described under treatment with IFN. The most common symptom is vasculitic neuropathy. However, peripheral neuropathy in a HCV-infected patient treated with IFN may also be caused by direct neurotoxic or antiangiogenic effects of IFN itself, often requiring a nerve biopsy to establish the exact diagnosis. The clinical course of vasculitic complications of IFN treatment is variable and ranges from regression of symptoms despite continuation of IFN treatment to fatal exacerbations despite termination of IFN treatment and additional immunosuppressive therapy. In most cases of IFN-induced vasculitis, immunosuppressive therapy with corticosteroids has been employed, leading to improvement of symptoms. We report the case of a patient with chronic HCV infection who first developed cryoglobulinemic vasculitis after initiation of therapy with the polyethylene glycol (PEG)-conjugated form of IFN (PEG-IFN) and discuss it in the context of the relevant literature. First onset of cryoglobulinemic vasculitis after initiation of IFN therapy has not been described so far.

Antiviral therapy: role in the management of extrahepatic diseases

This article considers the extrahepatic manifestations associated with HBV and HCV infection, the strength of the evidence for the association, potential pathological mechanisms, and evidence based therapeutic recommendations. As many of these extra hepatic conditions are uncommon, published reports have been largely uncontrolled or anecdotal.

Sustained exacerbation of cryoglobulinaemia-related vasculitis following treatment of hepatitis C with peginterferon alfa

Peginterferon is now the gold standard of therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Extrahepatic manifestations of HCV are usually treated with interferon alfa. Here we report on a patient with HCV-related cirrhosis and cryoglobulinaemia who presented with an acute and long-lasting exacerbation of vasculitis during treatment with peginterferon. To our knowledge this is the first report of an acute exacerbation of cryoglobulinaemia-related vasculitis involving skin, peripheral nerve and kidney in a patient treated with peginterferon for HCV-related cirrhosis. The long half-life of peginterferon might explain the long-lasting symptoms of vasculitis. Clinicians should be aware of possible sustained flare of cryoglobulinaemia-associated vasculitis in patients receiving peginterferon.

Renal manifestations of hepatitis C virus infection. Extrahepatic complications often are silent--and thus overlooked

Renal involvement often occurs in HCV infection. The most common renal manifestation is MPGN with or without cryoglobulinemia. Patients with glomerulonephritis may have no clinical evidence of systemic or liver involvement. Pathogenesis of HCV-associated MPGN is mediated by glomerular deposition of circulating immune complexes containing HCV and anti-HCV. The treatment of choice for MPGN is IFN-alpha. However, success is limited, and many patients fail to respond or experience relapse on discontinuation of therapy. Newer treatment modalities, such as high-dose IFN-alpha and recombinant IFN alpha-2b and ribavirin combination therapy, have led to improved suppression of HCV RNA levels.

Tolerability of treatments for viral hepatitis

Interferon-alpha is the most widely used antiviral drug in chronic hepatitis B and C. Tolerability is usually good and serious adverse effects are rare. Most of the adverse effects are mild or transient and do not necessitate drug withdrawal. More than 90% of patients who are given interferon-alpha achieve 6 months to 1 year of treatment without serious adverse effects. The serious adverse effects usually occur in predisposed patients with pre-existing organ dysfunction. Nevertheless, careful selection of patients for therapy and observation during therapy are recommended. Nucleoside analogues are promising drugs in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B through inhibition of viral DNA polymerase. Lamivudine has been licensed for use in this indication. Its tolerability is excellent even when used for periods of 1 year or more. The main concern is the relatively high incidence of viral resistance resulting in breakthrough during or relapse after therapy. In the treatment of chronic hepatitis C, ribavirin, in combination with interferon-alpha is currently the reference therapy. The main adverse effect is haemolytic anaemia, which necessitates careful monitoring and adjustment of dosage in many cases. Recently, large trials showed the better efficacy of pegylated interferons as compared with standard interferon. The combination of pegylated interferon with ribavirin is under evaluation.

Complex management issues: management of HCV in the atypical patient

Some patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection demonstrate atypical features of presentation and clinical course. These features may be due to direct or indirect effects of the underlying HCV infection or may be part of a separate clinical syndrome. Patients that can be categorized as 'atypical' include immunosuppressed individuals (hypogammaglobulinaemic, co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus, recipients of solid organ or haematopoietic cell transplants, those with associated disease requiring chronic immunosuppressive therapy and patients with chronic renal failure on haemodialysis) as well as patients with various extra-hepatic (HCV-associated mixed cryoglobulinaemia, membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis etc) or autoimmune manifestations. Since many of these patients have been excluded from the large trials evaluating the efficacy of interferon-alpha alone or in combination with ribavirin, data regarding management are limited. In this chapter, the available information regarding the treatment of these patients is reviewed and the frequently encountered therapeutic dilemmas discussed. Finally, some reasonable therapeutic approaches are suggested while the need for controlled studies for these groups of patients is emphasized.

Acute exacerbation of vasculitis during interferon-alpha therapy for hepatitis C-associated cryoglobulinaemia

A significant, previously unreported, adverse reaction to interferon-alpha therapy is reported. Immediately after the commencement of low dose therapy a man with hepatitis-C associated cryoglobulinaemia developed a purpuric rash and a severe, reversible impairment of renal function. This observation may elucidate the immunopathogenesis of vasculitis.

Cytokine-induced autoimmune disorders

Cytokines are now commonly used in the treatment of many conditions, especially cancer, haematological malignancies and chronic viral hepatitis. With some of these cytokines, clinical induction and/or exacerbation of autoimmune manifestations have been observed. This has been the case with interferon-alpha and interferon-gamma, interleukin-2 and some colony-stimulating factors. All known biological and clinical autoimmune features have been observed but thyroid abnormalities have been particularly frequent. Some of these manifestations appear to be related to the effect of these exogenous cytokines on the T helper cell (TH) 1/TH2-cytokine balance and the regulatory properties of these cells. Patients with a history of underlying autoimmune disease or baseline serological abnormalities should be monitored for autoimmunity when treated with certain TH1 or TH2-inducing cytokines.