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Klingenberg CP, Nijhout HF. GENETICS OF FLUCTUATING ASYMMETRY: A DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF DEVELOPMENTAL INSTABILITY. Evolution 2017; 53:358-375. [PMID: 28565420 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1999.tb03772.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/1998] [Accepted: 10/30/1998] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Although numerous studies have found that fluctuating asymmetry (FA) can have a heritable component, the genetic and developmental basis of FA is poorly understood. We used a developmental model of a trait, according to a diffusion-threshold process, whose parameters are under genetic control. We added a small amount of random variation to the parameter values of this model to simulate developmental noise. As a result of the nonlinearity of the model, different genotypes differed in their sensitivity to developmental noise, even though the noise is completely random and independent of the genotype. The heritable component of FA can thus be understood as genetically modulated expression of variation that is itself entirely nongenetic. The loci responsible for this genetic variation of FA are the same that affect the left/right mean of the trait, showing that genetic variation for FA does not require genes that specifically control FA. Furthermore, the model offers alternative explanations for phenomena widely discussed in the literature on FA, for instance, the correlations between FA and heterozygosity and between FA and trait size. The model underscores the importance of dominance and epistasis, and therefore unites the study of FA with the classical theory of quantitative genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Peter Klingenberg
- Department of Zoology, and Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology Group, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 27708-0325
| | - H Frederik Nijhout
- Department of Zoology, and Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology Group, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 27708-0325
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2
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Vangestel C, Mergeay J, Dawson DA, Vandomme V, Lens L. Developmental stability covaries with genome-wide and single-locus heterozygosity in house sparrows. PLoS One 2011; 6:e21569. [PMID: 21747940 PMCID: PMC3128584 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2010] [Accepted: 06/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluctuating asymmetry (FA), a measure of developmental instability, has been hypothesized to increase with genetic stress. Despite numerous studies providing empirical evidence for associations between FA and genome-wide properties such as multi-locus heterozygosity, support for single-locus effects remains scant. Here we test if, and to what extent, FA co-varies with single- and multilocus markers of genetic diversity in house sparrow (Passer domesticus) populations along an urban gradient. In line with theoretical expectations, FA was inversely correlated with genetic diversity estimated at genome level. However, this relationship was largely driven by variation at a single key locus. Contrary to our expectations, relationships between FA and genetic diversity were not stronger in individuals from urban populations that experience higher nutritional stress. We conclude that loss of genetic diversity adversely affects developmental stability in P. domesticus, and more generally, that the molecular basis of developmental stability may involve complex interactions between local and genome-wide effects. Further study on the relative effects of single-locus and genome-wide effects on the developmental stability of populations with different genetic properties is therefore needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Vangestel
- Terrestrial Ecology Unit, Department of Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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3
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Genetic monitoring of two decades of hybridization between allis shad (Alosa alosa) and twaite shad (Alosa fallax). CONSERV GENET 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-011-0211-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
As wild environments are often inhospitable, many species have to be captive-bred to save them from extinction. In captivity, species adapt genetically to the captive environment and these genetic adaptations are overwhelmingly deleterious when populations are returned to wild environments. I review empirical evidence on (i) the genetic basis of adaptive changes in captivity, (ii) factors affecting the extent of genetic adaptation to captivity, and (iii) means for minimizing its deleterious impacts. Genetic adaptation to captivity is primarily due to rare alleles that in the wild were deleterious and partially recessive. The extent of adaptation to captivity depends upon selection intensity, genetic diversity, effective population size and number of generation in captivity, as predicted by quantitative genetic theory. Minimizing generations in captivity provides a highly effective means for minimizing genetic adaptation to captivity, but is not a practical option for most animal species. Population fragmentation and crossing replicate captive populations provide practical means for minimizing the deleterious effects of genetic adaptation to captivity upon populations reintroduced into the wild. Surprisingly, equalization of family sizes reduces the rate of genetic adaptation, but not the deleterious impacts upon reintroduced populations. Genetic adaptation to captivity is expected to have major effects on reintroduction success for species that have spent many generations in captivity. This issue deserves a much higher priority than it is currently receiving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Frankham
- Key Centre for Biodiversity and Bioresources, Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia.
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Zachos FE, Hartl GB, Suchentrunk F. Fluctuating asymmetry and genetic variability in the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus): a test of the developmental stability hypothesis in mammals using neutral molecular markers. Heredity (Edinb) 2007; 98:392-400. [PMID: 17375126 DOI: 10.1038/sj.hdy.6800954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluctuating asymmetry (FA), used as an indicator of developmental stability, has long been hypothesized to be negatively correlated with genetic variability as a consequence of more variable organisms being better suited to buffer developmental pathways against environmental stress. However, it is still a matter of debate if this is due to metabolic properties of enzymes encoded by certain key loci or rather to overall genomic heterozygosity. Previous analyses suggest that there might be a general difference between homeo- and poikilotherms in that only the latter tend to exhibit the negative correlation predicted by theory. In the present study, we addressed these questions by analysing roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from five German populations with regard to FA in metric and non-metric skull and mandible traits as well as variability at eight microsatellite loci. Genetic variability was quantified by heterozygosity and mean d2 parameters, and although the latter did not show any relationship with FA, we found for the first time a statistically significant negative correlation of microsatellite heterozygosity and non-metric FA among populations. Because microsatellites are non-coding markers, this may be interpreted as evidence for the role of overall genomic heterozygosity in determining developmental stability. To test if the threshold character of non-metric traits is responsible for the metric vs non-metric difference we also carried out calculations where we treated our metric traits as threshold values. This, however, did not yield significant correlations between FA and genetic variability either.
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Affiliation(s)
- F E Zachos
- Zoological Institute, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany.
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Lopsided fish in the Snake River Basin — fluctuating asymmetry as a way of assessing impact of hatchery supplementation in chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-0983-6_31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
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7
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Radwan J, Drewniak M. Inbreeding depression for size but not for symmetry in Drosophila melanogaster. Hereditas 2001; 134:85-9. [PMID: 11525069 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-5223.2001.00085.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- J Radwan
- Department of Genetics and Cytology, Institute of Biology, Pedagogical Academy, ul. Podbrzezie 3, 31-054 Krakow, Poland.
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Thelen GC, Allendorf FW. Heterozygosity-fitness correlations in rainbow trout: effects of allozyme loci or associative overdominance? Evolution 2001; 55:1180-7. [PMID: 11475053 DOI: 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00637.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies with rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) have shown that increased heterozygosity at allozyme loci is correlated with several phenotypic traits associated with fitness. We expected to find a similar effect of heterozygosity at other nuclear loci if these associations are due to loci in linkage disequilibrium with the allozyme loci (i.e., associative overdominance), rather than the allozymes themselves. We examined the association between multiple locus heterozygosity and condition factor at 10 allozyme and 10 microsatellite loci. Individuals that were more heterozygous at allozyme loci had significantly greater condition factor in two hatchery cohorts of rainbow trout (1996 P = 0.006; 1997 P < 0.001). In contrast, there was no evidence at microsatellite loci that increased heterozygosity was associated with greater condition factor. Our results suggest that the observed relationship between heterozygosity at allozyme loci and condition factor in rainbow trout appears to be due to the allozyme loci themselves, rather than associative overdominance. We cannot, however, rule out that differences in the mutation process between allozymes and microsatellites may be responsible for these observations. Regardless of the underlying mechanism, these results support the view that allozymes and microsatellites are differentially affected by natural selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- G C Thelen
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula 59812, USA
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Thelen GC, Allendorf FW. HETEROZYGOSITY-FITNESS CORRELATIONS IN RAINBOW TROUT: EFFECTS OF ALLOZYME LOCI OR ASSOCIATIVE OVERDOMINANCE? Evolution 2001. [DOI: 10.1554/0014-3820(2001)055[1180:hfcirt]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Lens L, Van Dongen S, Galbusera P, Schenck T, Matthysen E, Van De Casteele T. Developmental instability and inbreeding in natural bird populations exposed to different levels of habitat disturbance. J Evol Biol 2000. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1420-9101.2000.00232.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Clarke GM, Yen JL, McKenzie JA. Wings and bristles: character specificity of the asymmetry phenotype in insecticide-resistant strains of Lucilia cuprina. Proc Biol Sci 2000; 267:1815-8. [PMID: 11052530 PMCID: PMC1690755 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2000.1215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the hypothesis that observed higher levels of asymmetry displayed by insecticide-resistance genotypes of Lucilia cuprina are restricted to bristle characters, due to the action of resistance genes in bristle cell development, rather than through the disruption of genomic coadaptation. We compared the level of asymmetry of three bristle characters and three wing characters in non-modified and modified-resistance genotypes. Consistent with previous studies, resistance genotypes displayed greater levels of bristle asymmetry than either susceptible or modified genotypes. However, there were no differences among genotypes for any of the wing characters. To confirm that this result is attributable to the action of the resistance and modifier genes themselves, we also examined the responses of both bristle and wing characters to the more general developmental stress of extreme temperature. Sub-optimal temperature was shown to increase both bristle and wing asymmetry, suggesting that there are no underlying differences between the two character types which could, of themselves, explain the differential response observed in the resistance genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- G M Clarke
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Entomology, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
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Allendorf FW, Seeb LW. Concordance of genetic divergence among sockeye salmon populations at allozyme, nuclear DNA, and mitochondrial DNA markers. Evolution 2000; 54:640-51. [PMID: 10937239 DOI: 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00065.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We examined genetic variation at 21 polymorphic allozyme loci, 15 nuclear DNA loci, and mitochondrial DNA in four spawning populations of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) from Cook Inlet, Alaska, to test for differences in the patterns of divergence among different types of markers. We were specifically interested in testing the suggestion that natural selection at allozyme loci compromises the effectiveness of these markers for describing the amount and patterns of gene flow among populations. We found concordance among markers in the amount of genetic variation within and among populations, with the striking exception of one allozyme locus (sAH), which exhibited more than three times the amount of among-population differentiation as other loci. A consideration of reports of discordance between allozymes and other loci indicates that these differences usually result from one or two exceptional loci. We conclude that it is important to examine many loci when estimating genetic differentiation to infer historical amounts of gene flow and patterns of genetic exchange among populations. It is less important whether those loci are allozymes or nuclear DNA markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- F W Allendorf
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula 59812, USA.
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Allendorf FW, Seeb LW. CONCORDANCE OF GENETIC DIVERGENCE AMONG SOCKEYE SALMON POPULATIONS AT ALLOZYME, NUCLEAR DNA, AND MITOCHONDRIAL DNA MARKERS. Evolution 2000. [DOI: 10.1554/0014-3820(2000)054[0640:cogdas]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Perfectti F, Camacho JPM. ANALYSIS OF GENOTYPIC DIFFERENCES IN DEVELOPMENTAL STABILITY IN ANNONA CHERIMOLA. Evolution 1999; 53:1396-1405. [PMID: 28565545 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1999.tb05404.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/1998] [Accepted: 04/20/1999] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The genetic basis of developmental stability, measured as asymmetry (fluctuating asymmetry in leaves), was analyzed in leaves and flowers of cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill) and atemoya (A. cherimola × A. squamosa). The individuals analyzed belonged to a controlled collection of cultivars (clones) that had previously been characterized by means of isozymes. We used a nested design to analyze the differences in asymmetry at several sampling levels: individual leaves and flowers, individual trees, and genotypes. The clonal repeatability of developmental stability was not significantly different from zero, thus suggesting the absence of heritability of the asymmetry for leaves and flowers under these environmental conditions. No relationship between asymmetry and individual heterozygosity was found, but leaf fluctuating asymmetry was significantly related to particular isozymic genes. Petal and leaf size showed a phenotypically plastic response to the exposure zone of the tree (mainly due to light). Leaf fluctuating asymmetry also showed such a plastic response. No significant correlation was found between asymmetry and any pomological characters (some of these being fitness related). Finally, the hybrid species (atemoya) did not show larger developmental instability than did the parental species (cherimoya). All these data show that cherimoya asymmetry reveals the random nature of developmental noise, with developmental stability for leaves being possibly related to specific chromosome regions, but with weak evidence for genotypic differences in developmental stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Perfectti
- Departamento de Genetica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Juan Pedro M Camacho
- Departamento de Genetica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
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16
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Genetic divergence and phylogenetic relationships among Salmo trutta L. (brown trout) populations from Greece and other European countries. Heredity (Edinb) 1996. [DOI: 10.1038/hdy.1996.80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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17
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Heterozygosity at the malate dehydrogenase locus and developmental homeostasis in Apis mellifera. Heredity (Edinb) 1996. [DOI: 10.1038/hdy.1996.88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
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18
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Clarke GM, Oldroyd BP. The genetic basis of developmental stability in Apis mellifera II. Relationships between character size, asymmetry and single-locus heterozygosity. Genetica 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00054628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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