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Dakok KK, Matjafri MZ, Suardi N, Oglat AA, Nabasu SE. A Review of Carotid Artery Phantoms for Doppler Ultrasound Applications. J Med Ultrasound 2021; 29:157-166. [PMID: 34729323 PMCID: PMC8515632 DOI: 10.4103/jmu.jmu_164_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultrasound imaging systems need tissue-mimicking phantoms with a good range of acoustic properties. Many studies on carotid artery phantoms have been carried out using ultrasound; hence this study presents a review of the different forms of carotid artery phantoms used to examine blood hemodynamics by Doppler ultrasound (DU) methods and explains the ingredients that constitute every phantom with their advantages and disadvantages. Different research databases were consulted to access relevant information on carotid artery phantoms used for DU measurements after which the information were presented systematically spanning from walled phantoms to wall-less phantoms. This review points out the fact that carotid artery phantoms are made up of tissue mimicking materials, vessel mimicking materials, and blood mimicking fluid whose properties matched those of real human tissues and vessels. These materials are a combination of substances such as water, gelatin, glycerol, scatterers, and other powders in their right proportions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyermang Kyense Dakok
- Department of Medical Physics and Radiation Science, School of Physics, Univirsti Sains Malaysia, Penang Malaysia, Nigeria
| | - Mohammed Zubir Matjafri
- Department of Medical Physics and Radiation Science, School of Physics, Univirsti Sains Malaysia, Penang Malaysia, Nigeria
| | - Nursakinah Suardi
- Department of Medical Physics and Radiation Science, School of Physics, Univirsti Sains Malaysia, Penang Malaysia, Nigeria
| | - Ammar Anwar Oglat
- Department of Medical Imaging, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Joradan, Nigeria
| | - Seth Ezra Nabasu
- Department of Physics, Plateau State University Bokkos, Plateau State, Nigeria
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Sztilkovics M, Gerecsei T, Peter B, Saftics A, Kurunczi S, Szekacs I, Szabo B, Horvath R. Single-cell adhesion force kinetics of cell populations from combined label-free optical biosensor and robotic fluidic force microscopy. Sci Rep 2020; 10:61. [PMID: 31919421 PMCID: PMC6952389 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-56898-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Single-cell adhesion force plays a crucial role in biological sciences, however its in-depth investigation is hindered by the extremely low throughput and the lack of temporal resolution of present techniques. While atomic force microcopy (AFM) based methods are capable of directly measuring the detachment force values between individual cells and a substrate, their throughput is limited to few cells per day, and cannot provide the kinetic evaluation of the adhesion force over the timescale of several hours. In this study a high spatial and temporal resolution resonant waveguide grating based label-free optical biosensor was combined with robotic fluidic force microscopy to monitor the adhesion of living cancer cells. In contrast to traditional fluidic force microscopy methods with a manipulation range in the order of 300-400 micrometers, the robotic device employed here can address single cells over mm-cm scale areas. This feature significantly increased measurement throughput, and opened the way to combine the technology with the employed microplate-based, large area biosensor. After calibrating the biosensor signals with the direct force measuring technology on 30 individual cells, the kinetic evaluation of the adhesion force and energy of large cell populations was performed for the first time. We concluded that the distribution of the single-cell adhesion force and energy can be fitted by log-normal functions as cells are spreading on the surface and revealed the dynamic changes in these distributions. The present methodology opens the way for the quantitative assessment of the kinetics of single-cell adhesion force and energy with an unprecedented throughput and time resolution, in a completely non-invasive manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Sztilkovics
- Nanobiosensorics Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Tamas Gerecsei
- Nanobiosensorics Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Biological Physics, Eötvös University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Beatrix Peter
- Nanobiosensorics Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Andras Saftics
- Nanobiosensorics Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Sandor Kurunczi
- Nanobiosensorics Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Inna Szekacs
- Nanobiosensorics Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Balint Szabo
- Department of Biological Physics, Eötvös University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Robert Horvath
- Nanobiosensorics Group, Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, Budapest, Hungary.
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Hoskins PR. Simulation and validation of arterial ultrasound imaging and blood flow. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 2008; 34:693-717. [PMID: 18329162 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2007.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2007] [Revised: 10/18/2007] [Accepted: 10/26/2007] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We reviewed the simulation and validation of arterial ultrasound imaging and blood flow assessment. The physical process of ultrasound imaging and measurement is complex, especially in disease. Simulation of physiological flow in a phantom with tissue equivalence of soft tissue, vessel wall and blood is now achievable. Outstanding issues are concerned with production of anatomical models, simulation of arterial disease, refinement of blood mimics to account for non-Newtonian behavior and validation of velocity measurements against an independent technique such as particle image velocimetry. String and belt phantoms offer simplicity of design, especially for evaluation of velocity estimators, and have a role as portable test objects. Electronic injection and vibrating test objects produce nonphysiologic Doppler signals, and their role is limited. Computational models of the ultrasound imaging and measurement process offer considerable flexibility in their ability to alter multiple parameters of both the propagation medium and ultrasound instrument. For these models, outstanding issues are concerned with the inclusion of different tissue types, multilayer arteries, inhomogeneous tissues and diseased tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter R Hoskins
- Medical Physics Section, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
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Poepping TL, Nikolov HN, Thorne ML, Holdsworth DW. A thin-walled carotid vessel phantom for Doppler ultrasound flow studies. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 2004; 30:1067-1078. [PMID: 15474751 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2004.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2003] [Revised: 05/29/2004] [Accepted: 06/03/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A technique is discussed for producing a robust ultrasound (US)-compatible flow phantom that consists of a thin-walled silicone-elastomer vessel with a lumen of arbitrary geometry, embedded in an agar-based tissue-mimicking material (TMM). The TMM has an acoustic attenuation of 0.56 dB cm(-1) MHz(-1) at 5 MHz, with nearly linear frequency-dependence and acoustic velocity of 1539 +/- 4 m s(-1). The vessel-mimicking material (VMM) has an acoustic attenuation of 3.5 dB cm(-1) MHz(-1) with linear frequency-dependence and an acoustic velocity of 1020 +/- 20 m s(-1). Scattering particles, which are added to the VMM to increase echogenicity and add speckle texture, lead to higher attenuation, depending on particle concentration and frequency. The VMM is stable over time, with a Young's elastic modulus of 1.3 to 1.7 MPa for strains of up to 10%, which mimics human arteries under typical physiological conditions. The phantom is sealed to prevent TMM exposure to air or water, to avoid changes to the acoustic velocity.
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Robinson TM, Cowan DM, Lee JW, Roberts VC. A transputer-based physiological signal processing system. Part 2--System testing and investigation of flow through models of very small arterial stenoses. Med Eng Phys 1996; 18:36-44. [PMID: 8771037 DOI: 10.1016/1350-4533(95)00021-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes the performance testing of a novel transputer-based physiological digital signal processing (DSP) unit and its application in the interpretation of pulsed Doppler ultrasound signals, obtained from models of arterial stenoses. The first test used the DSP unit as a stand-alone spectrum analyser using (1) sinusoidal frequencies (50 Hz to 10 kHz) and (2) filtered white noise (centre frequency 3 kHz, bandwidth 2.5 kHz). For the second test, the DSP unit was attached to a 30-channel multi-gate Doppler ultrasound scanner (transmitting a 4.8 MHz pulse with a repetition frequency of 4.8 kHz) and a vessel tracking unit. The Doppler ultrasound signals obtained from steady flow (100-600 ml/min) in a rigid acrylic tube (internal diameter 6 mm) were then analyzed by the DSP unit and a commercially available system. Lastly, an in vitro investigation into the flow disturbances around very small stenoses (2-25% cross-sectional area reduction), using steady flow (100-600 ml/min), was undertaken. The results indicated that the system was capable of detecting stenoses as small as 5% cross-sectional area reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Robinson
- Department of Medical Engineering & Physics, King's College School of Medicine & Dentistry, London, UK
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Cowan DM, Deane ER, Robinson TM, Lee JW, Roberts VC. A transputer-based physiological signal processing system. Part 1--System design. Med Eng Phys 1995; 17:403-9. [PMID: 7582323 DOI: 10.1016/1350-4533(94)00004-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
This paper, the first of two, details the design and in-vitro testing of a transputer-based physiological signal processing system. The heart of the system is a transputer-based digital signal processing (DSP) board which can act as a stand-alone spectrum analyser, designed to operate in the audio-frequency band up to 25 kHz. The board comprises a T800 processor, two A100 transversal filters, 12 bit A-D circuitry capable of sampling up to 48 kHz, memory and address mapper. The initial application of the system is for the detection of early arterial disease. For this the DSP board is harnessed to the front end of a multigate pulsed Doppler ultrasound scanner operating at 4.8 MHz insonation frequency and incorporating a vessel wall tracking unit. The complete system performs a Fourier transform on the backscattered signals, providing spectral information on discrete areas of flow (0.6 mm3) across the vessel lumen in real time. This first paper describes the hardware, and the second describes the performance testing of the system on the bench and an assessment of its ability to detect low grade stenoses during steady flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Cowan
- Department of Medical Engineering & Physics, King's College School of Medicine & Dentistry, London, UK
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Brands PJ, Hoeks AP, Hofstra L, Reneman RS. A noninvasive method to estimate wall shear rate using ultrasound. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 1995; 21:171-85. [PMID: 7571127 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-5629(94)00111-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Wall shear stress (blood viscosity x wall shear rate), imposed by the flowing blood, and blood pressure are the main mechanical forces acting on a blood vessel wall. Accurate measurement of wall shear stress is important when investigating the development of vascular disease, since both high and low wall shear stresses have been cited as factors leading to vessel wall anomalies. Furthermore, in vitro studies have shown that endothelial cells, which play a key role in the function of the underlying arterial wall, undergo a variety of structural and functional changes in response to imposed shear stress. However, there is practically no knowledge about the influence of wall shear stress on the arterial wall in vivo because of the difficulty in measuring this stress in terms of magnitude and time variation. The method presented in this article to measure the time-dependent wall shear rate in the main arteries is based on the evaluation of velocity profiles determined by means of ultrasound, using off-line signal processing. Pulsed ultrasound is well suited for this application since it is noninvasive. The processing performed in the radio-frequency (RF) domain consists of a mean frequency estimator preceded by an adaptive vessel wall filter. In a pilot study (30 measurements in the carotid artery of five healthy volunteers) we investigated the reproducibility of our method to estimate wall shear rate as compared with the reproducibility of the measurement of blood flow velocity in the middle of the vessel. The coefficient of variation was on the order of 9% for blood flow velocity estimation, and for wall shear rate estimation on the order of 5%.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Brands
- Department of Biophysics, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, University of Limburg, The Netherlands
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Robinson TM, Lee JW, Roberts VC. Detection of early atherosclerosis by analysis of ultrasonic Doppler signals produced by mural flow disturbances. Med Biol Eng Comput 1994; 32:702-3. [PMID: 7723437 DOI: 10.1007/bf02524255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The paper describes an in vitro study using a multi-gate Doppler ultrasound system to investigate flow disturbances in a blood analogue caused by small stenoses (2-25% cross-sectional area reduction), using steady flow (100-600 ml min-1) in a 6 mm diameter rigid artery model. The results indicate that stenoses greater than 5% were detectable.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Robinson
- Department of Medical Engineering & Physics, King's College School of Medicine & Dentistry, London, UK
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Potential limitations of center-line pulsed Doppler recordings: An in vitro flow visualization study. J Vasc Surg 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0741-5214(89)90466-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Law YF, Cobbold RS, Johnston KW, Bascom PA. Computer-controlled pulsatile pump system for physiological flow simulation. Med Biol Eng Comput 1987; 25:590-5. [PMID: 3446983 DOI: 10.1007/bf02441756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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