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Zagorski JW, Kaminski NE. Utilization of a novel human hepatocyte-endothelial cell coculture model to determine differential toxicities of pyrrolizidine alkaloid food contaminants. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 187:114584. [PMID: 38490353 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) are comprised of a family of hundreds of metabolites, produced by plants as a mechanism to protect against herbivory. Upon ingestion and metabolism, dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids are formed, which are known to generate DNA adducts and subsequently double-strand DNA breaks. Within the liver, the most sensitive cell type to PA exposure is the sinusoidal endothelial cell, as evidenced by the generation of veno-occlusive disease in the human population. PAs are a common crop contaminant and have been regulated by some agencies, using the precautionary principle; each equally potent and genotoxic. Therefore, as a proof of principle we have established a human in vitro coculture model system, utilizing the metabolically active HepaRG hepatocyte and the SK-Hep-1 endothelial cell, to determine differential potencies of different PAs commonly found in crops and food products, notably cell death, targeting of endothelial cells, and genotoxicity comparing the micronucleus assay versus γH2AX assay. Our results demonstrate differential potencies of the PAs used, which encompass three esterification states (monoester, cyclic diester, and open-chain diester). The results suggest that a more nuanced approach to the regulation of PAs may be more appropriate in the regulatory decision-making process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph W Zagorski
- Center for Research on Ingredient Safety, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA; Institute for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Norbert E Kaminski
- Center for Research on Ingredient Safety, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA; Institute for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
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Abdalfattah S, Knorz C, Ayoobi A, Omer EA, Rosellini M, Riedl M, Meesters C, Efferth T. Identification of Antagonistic Action of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor M1 by Computational Target Prediction Analysis. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:80. [PMID: 38256913 PMCID: PMC10818892 DOI: 10.3390/ph17010080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are one of the largest distributed classes of toxins in nature. They have a wide range of toxicity, such as hepatotoxicity, pulmonary toxicity, neuronal toxicity, and carcinogenesis. Yet, biological targets responsible for these effects are not well addressed. Using methods of computational biology for target identification, we tested more than 200 PAs. We used a machine-learning approach that applies structural similarity for target identification, ChemMapper, and SwissTargetPrediction. The predicted targets with high probabilities were muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1. The predicted interactions between these two targets and PAs were further studied by molecular docking-based binding energies using AutoDock and VinaLC, which revealed good binding affinities. The PAs are bound to the same binding pocket as pirenzepine, a known M1 antagonist. These results were confirmed by in vitro assays showing that PAs increased the levels of intracellular calcium. We conclude that PAs are potential acetylcholine receptor M1 antagonists. This elucidates for the first time the serious neuro-oncological toxicities exerted by PA consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Abdalfattah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (S.A.); (C.K.); (A.A.); (E.A.O.); (M.R.)
| | - Caroline Knorz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (S.A.); (C.K.); (A.A.); (E.A.O.); (M.R.)
| | - Akhtar Ayoobi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (S.A.); (C.K.); (A.A.); (E.A.O.); (M.R.)
- Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Alzahra University, Tehran 19938 93973, Iran
| | - Ejlal A. Omer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (S.A.); (C.K.); (A.A.); (E.A.O.); (M.R.)
| | - Matteo Rosellini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (S.A.); (C.K.); (A.A.); (E.A.O.); (M.R.)
| | - Max Riedl
- Institute for Medical Informatics, Statistics and Epidemiology, University of Leipzig, 04107 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Christian Meesters
- High Performance Computing Group, University of Mainz, 55131 Mainz, Germany;
| | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany; (S.A.); (C.K.); (A.A.); (E.A.O.); (M.R.)
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3
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Giglio ML, Boland W, Heras H. Egg toxic compounds in the animal kingdom. A comprehensive review. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:1938-1969. [PMID: 35916025 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00029f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 1951 to 2022Packed with nutrients and unable to escape, eggs are the most vulnerable stage of an animal's life cycle. Consequently, many species have evolved chemical defenses and teamed up their eggs with a vast array of toxic molecules for defense against predators, parasites, or pathogens. However, studies on egg toxins are rather scarce and the available information is scattered. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of animal egg toxins and to analyze the trends and patterns with respect to the chemistry and biosynthesis of these toxins. We analyzed their ecology, distribution, sources, occurrence, structure, function, relative toxicity, and mechanistic aspects and include a brief section on the aposematic coloration of toxic eggs. We propose criteria for a multiparametric classification that accounts for the complexity of analyzing the full set of toxins of animal eggs. Around 100 properly identified egg toxins are found in 188 species, distributed in 5 phyla: cnidarians (2) platyhelminths (2), mollusks (9), arthropods (125), and chordates (50). Their scattered pattern among animals suggests that species have evolved this strategy independently on numerous occasions. Alkaloids are the most abundant and widespread, among the 13 types of egg toxins recognized. Egg toxins are derived directly from the environment or are endogenously synthesized, and most of them are transferred by females inside the eggs. Their toxicity ranges from ρmol kg-1 to mmol kg-1, and for some species, experiments support their role in predation deterrence. There is still a huge gap in information to complete the whole picture of this field and the number of toxic eggs seems largely underestimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías L Giglio
- Instituto de Investigaciones Bioquímicas de La Plata "Prof. Dr Rodolfo R. Brenner", INIBIOLP, CONICET CCT La Plata - Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, 60 y 120, 1900 La Plata, Argentina.
| | - Wilhelm Boland
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Horacio Heras
- Instituto de Investigaciones Bioquímicas de La Plata "Prof. Dr Rodolfo R. Brenner", INIBIOLP, CONICET CCT La Plata - Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, 60 y 120, 1900 La Plata, Argentina. .,Cátedra de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), La Plata, Argentina
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Edgar JA, Molyneux RJ, Colegate SM. 1,2-Dehydropyrrolizidine Alkaloids: Their Potential as a Dietary Cause of Sporadic Motor Neuron Diseases. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:340-354. [PMID: 35238548 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Sporadic motor neuron diseases (MNDs), such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), can be caused by spontaneous genetic mutations. However, many sporadic cases of ALS and other debilitating neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are believed to be caused by environmental factors, subject to considerable debate and requiring intensive research. A common pathology associated with MND development involves progressive mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in motor neurons and glial cells of the central nervous system (CNS), leading to apoptosis. Consequent degeneration of skeletal and respiratory muscle cells can lead to death from respiratory failure. A significant number of MND cases present with cancers and liver and lung pathology. This Perspective explores the possibility that MNDs could be caused by intermittent, low-level dietary exposure to 1,2-dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids (1,2-dehydroPAs) that are increasingly recognized as contaminants of many foods consumed throughout the world. Nontoxic, per se, 1,2-dehydroPAs are metabolized, by particular cytochrome P450 (CYP450) isoforms, to 6,7-dihydropyrrolizines that react with nucleophilic groups (-NH, -SH, -OH) on DNA, proteins, and other vital biochemicals, such as glutathione. Many factors, including aging, gender, smoking, and alcohol consumption, influence CYP450 isoform activity in a range of tissues, including glial cells and neurons of the CNS. Activation of 1,2-dehydroPAs in CNS cells can be expected to cause gene mutations and oxidative stress, potentially leading to the development of MNDs and other NDDs. While relatively high dietary exposure to 1,2-dehydroPAs causes hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome, pulmonary venoocclusive disease, neurotoxicity, and diverse cancers, this Perspective suggests that, at current intermittent, low levels of dietary exposure, neurotoxicity could become the primary pathology that develops over time in susceptible individuals, along with a tendency for some of them to also display liver and lung pathology and diverse cancers co-occurring with some MND/NDD cases. Targeted research is recommended to investigate this proposal.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Edgar
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, 11 Julius Avenue, North Ryde, New South Wales 2113, Australia
| | - Russell J Molyneux
- Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 200 West Kawili Street, Hilo, Hawaii 96720, United States
| | - Steven M Colegate
- Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, ARS/USDA, 1150 East 1400 North, Logan, Utah 84341, United States
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5
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Kwon Y, Gu Y, Jeong Y. Evaluation of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in Korean commercial honeys and bee pollens. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.3136/fstr.fstr-d-21-00221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yujihn Kwon
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology Dankook University
| | - Yongui Gu
- Food Contaminants Division, Food Safety Evaluation Department, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, Ministry of Food and Drug Safety
| | - Yoonhwa Jeong
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Technology Dankook University
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He Y, Ma J, Fan X, Ding L, Ding X, Zhang QY, Lin G. The key role of gut-liver axis in pyrrolizidine alkaloid-induced hepatotoxicity and enterotoxicity. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11:3820-3835. [PMID: 35024309 PMCID: PMC8727778 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are the most common phytotoxins with documented human hepatotoxicity. PAs require metabolic activation by cytochromes P450 to generate toxic intermediates which bind to proteins and form protein adducts, thereby causing cytotoxicity. This study investigated the role of the gut-liver axis in PA intoxication and the underlying mechanisms. We exposed mice to retrorsine (RTS), a representative PA, and for the first time found RTS-induced intestinal epithelium damage and disruption to intestinal barrier function. Using mice with tissue-selective ablation of P450 activity, we found that hepatic P450s, but not intestinal P450s, were essential for PA bioactivation. Besides, in RTS-exposed, bile duct-cannulated rats, we found the liver-derived reactive PA metabolites were transported by bile into the intestine to exert enterotoxicity. The impact of gut-derived pathogenic factors in RTS-induced hepatotoxicity was further studied in mice with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced chronic colitis. DSS treatment increased the hepatic endotoxin level and depleted hepatic reduced glutathione, thereby suppressing the PA detoxification pathway. Compared to RTS-exposed normal mice, the colitic mice displayed more severe RTS-induced hepatic vasculature damage, fibrosis, and steatosis. Overall, our findings provide the first mode-of-action evidence of PA-induced enterotoxicity and highlight the importance of gut barrier function in PA-induced liver injury.
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7
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He Y, Zhu L, Ma J, Lin G. Metabolism-mediated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:1917-1942. [PMID: 34003343 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03060-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and PA N-oxides are common phytotoxins produced by over 6000 plant species. Humans are frequently exposed to PAs via ingestion of PA-containing herbal products or PA-contaminated foods. PAs require metabolic activation to form pyrrole-protein adducts and pyrrole-DNA adducts which lead to cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. Individual PAs differ in their metabolic activation patterns, which may cause significant difference in toxic potency of different PAs. This review discusses the current knowledge and recent advances of metabolic pathways of different PAs, especially the metabolic activation and metabolism-mediated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, and the risk evaluation methods of PA exposure. In addition, this review provides perspectives of precision toxicity assessment strategies and biomarker development for the risk control and translational investigations of human intoxication by PAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yisheng He
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Lin Zhu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Jiang Ma
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Ge Lin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
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Zhang Y, Yang FF, Chen H, Qi YD, Si JY, Wu Q, Liao YH. Analysis of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in Eupatorium fortunei Turcz. and their in vitro neurotoxicity. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 151:112151. [PMID: 33774095 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This study was to analyze the pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in Eupatorium fortunei herbs and its derived finished products with a view to evaluating their effects on the proliferation and oligodendrogenesis of neural progenitor cells (NPCs). Using a LC-MS/MS method with 32 PAs reference standards, 8 PAs including intermedine, intermedine N-oxide, lycopsamine, lycopsamine N-oxide, retronecine, seneciphylline and senkirkine and 7-acetylintermedine N-oxide were identified with intermedine N-oxide and lycopsamine N-oxide being most abundant. The total PA amounts were found to vary from 0.18 to 61.81 μg/g in 30 batches of herbs and from 0.86 to 36.96 μg/g in 4 commercial finished products, respectively. Risk assessments indicated that the short-term intake seemed unlikely lead to acute toxic effects but the chronic use warranted cautions. Using NPCs derived from mouse induced pluripotent stem cells as an in vitro testing model, intermedine, intermedine N-oxide and lycopsamine N-oxide appeared to decrease cell viability at 30 μM whereas intermedine N-oxide inhibited oligodendrogenesis of NPCs at 10 μM. The present results suggested that the PAs in the majority of E. fortunei herbs and the derived products not only resulted in their exposure far exceeding the acceptable intake limit (i. e. 1.0 μg PA per day for adults) in herbal medicinal products recommended by the European Medicines Agency but also induced neurotoxicity to NPCs in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Yangguang South Street, Fangshan District, Beijing, 102488, PR China; Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development (IMPLAD), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No. 151 Malianwa North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - Fei-Fei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development (IMPLAD), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No. 151 Malianwa North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - Huan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development (IMPLAD), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No. 151 Malianwa North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - Yao-Dong Qi
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development (IMPLAD), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No. 151 Malianwa North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - Jian-Yong Si
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development (IMPLAD), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No. 151 Malianwa North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - Qing Wu
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Yangguang South Street, Fangshan District, Beijing, 102488, PR China.
| | - Yong-Hong Liao
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development (IMPLAD), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No. 151 Malianwa North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100193, PR China.
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He Y, Lian W, Ding L, Fan X, Ma J, Zhang QY, Ding X, Lin G. Lung injury induced by pyrrolizidine alkaloids depends on metabolism by hepatic cytochrome P450s and blood transport of reactive metabolites. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:103-116. [PMID: 33033841 PMCID: PMC8765307 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02921-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are common phytotoxins with both hepatotoxicity and pneumotoxicity. Hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes are known to bioactivate PAs into reactive metabolites, which can interact with proteins to form pyrrole-protein adducts and cause intrahepatic cytotoxicity. However, the metabolic and initiation biochemical mechanisms underlying PA-induced pneumotoxicity remain unclear. To investigate the in vivo metabolism basis for PA-induced lung injury, this study used mice with conditional deletion of the cytochrome P450 reductase (Cpr) gene and resultant tissue-selective ablation of microsomal P450 enzyme activities. After oral exposure to monocrotaline (MCT), a pneumotoxic PA widely used to establish animal lung injury models, liver-specific Cpr-null (LCN) mice, but not extrahepatic Cpr-low (xh-CL) mice, had significantly lower level of pyrrole-protein adducts in the serum, liver and lungs compared with wild-type (WT) mice. While MCT-exposed LCN mice had significantly higher blood concentration of intact MCT, compared to MCT-exposed WT or xh-CL mice. Consistent with the MCT in vivo bioactivation data, MCT-induced lung injury, represented by vasculature damage, in WT and xh-CL mice but not LCN mice. Furthermore, reactive metabolites of MCT were confirmed to exist in the blood efflux from the hepatic veins of MCT-exposed rats. Our results provide the first mode-of-action evidence that hepatic P450s are essential for the bioactivation of MCT, and blood circulating reactive metabolites of MCT to the lung causes pneumotoxicity. Collectively, this study presents the scientific basis for the application of MCT in animal lung injury models, and more importantly, warrants public awareness and further investigations of lung diseases associated with exposure to not only MCT but also different PAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yisheng He
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Lian
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Ding
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Xiaoyu Fan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Jiang Ma
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing-Yu Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Xinxin Ding
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
| | - Ge Lin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China.
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Toxin Degradation by Rumen Microorganisms: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100664. [PMID: 33092236 PMCID: PMC7590051 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal feeds may contain exogenous compounds that can induce toxicity when ruminants ingest them. These toxins are secondary metabolites originating from various sources including plants, bacteria, algae and fungi. Animal feed toxins are responsible for various animal poisonings which negatively impact the livestock industry. Poisoning is more frequently reported in newly exposed, naïve ruminants while ‘experienced’ ruminants are observed to better tolerate toxin-contaminated feed. Ruminants can possess detoxification ability through rumen microorganisms with the rumen microbiome able to adapt to utilise toxic secondary metabolites. The ability of rumen microorganisms to metabolise these toxins has been used as a basis for the development of preventative probiotics to confer resistance against the poisoning to naïve ruminants. In this review, detoxification of various toxins, which include plant toxins, cyanobacteria toxins and plant-associated fungal mycotoxins, by rumen microorganisms is discussed. The review will include clinical studies of the animal poisoning caused by these toxins, the toxin mechanism of action, toxin degradation by rumen microorganisms, reported and hypothesised detoxification mechanisms and identified toxin metabolites with their toxicity compared to their parent toxin. This review highlights the commercial potential of rumen inoculum derived probiotics as viable means of improving ruminant health and production.
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Song Z, He Y, Ma J, Fu PP, Lin G. Pulmonary toxicity is a common phenomenon of toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART C, TOXICOLOGY AND CARCINOGENESIS 2020; 38:124-140. [PMID: 32500835 DOI: 10.1080/26896583.2020.1743608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are metabolically activated in the liver to form reactive dehydro-PAs, which generate pyrrole-protein adducts leading to hepatotoxicity. Monocrotaline, but not other PAs, is also pneumotoxic, supposedly due to the migration of the liver-generated corresponding dehydro-PA into the lung to form pyrrole-protein adducts to induce pneumotoxicity. The present study investigated whether other PAs are also pneumotoxic. Metabolic activation of four representative hepatotoxic PAs, monocrotaline, retrorsine, riddelliine and clivorine, was investigated using rat liver or lung S9 incubation. All PAs produced pyrrole-protein adducts significantly in rat liver S9 but negligible in lung S9 fraction, revealing that liver is the key organ responsible for metabolic activation generating dehydro-PAs. Furthermore, these four PAs and another two PAs present in the alkaloid extract of Gynura segetum, a widely used PA-producing herb responsible for human PA poisonings in China, were orally administered to rats using the same hepatotoxic dose of 0.2 mmol/kg. All six PAs induced pneumotoxicity in rats within 48 h. The results demonstrated that pneumotoxicity could be a common phenomenon of PAs and the liver-derived dehydro-PAs might move to the lung and form pyrrole-protein adducts, leading to pulmonary toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijing Song
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Yisheng He
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jiang Ma
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Peter P Fu
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, USA
| | - Ge Lin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
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12
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Chen Y, Xiong F, Wang W, Jiang K, Ye X, Deng G, Wang C, Yang L, Xiong A, Wang Z. The long persistence of pyrrolizidine alkaloid-derived pyrrole-protein adducts in vivo: Kinetic study following multiple exposures of a pyrrolizidine alkaloid containing extract of Gynura japonica. Toxicol Lett 2020; 323:41-47. [PMID: 31982501 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Gynura japonica (also named Tusanqi in Chinese) is used as a folk herbal medicine for treating blood stasis or traumatic injury. However, hundreds of hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (HSOS) cases have been reported after consumption of preparations made from G. japonica because it contains large amounts of hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). To date, blood pyrrole-protein adducts (PPAs) are suggested as biomarkers for the diagnosis of PA-induced HSOS in clinics. However, the concentration of PPAs in the blood is greatly affected by several factors including the amount of PA exposure, herb intake period, and blood sampling time after the last exposure. In present study, the kinetic characters of PPAs in serum and liver as well as other potential target organs were studied systematically and comprehensively following multiple exposures of PAs in G. japonica extract (GJE). As results, PPAs content reached to a plateau both in serum and liver after the mice were treated with GJE for 2 weeks on daily basis. PPAs cleared significantly slower in liver (T1/2ke∼184.6 h, ∼7.7 days) than in serum (T1/2ke∼95.8 h, ∼4.0 days). Although more than 90 % PPAs were removed 2 weeks after the last dosing, PPAs still persisted in the liver until the end of the experiment, i.e. 8 weeks after the last dosing. The results would be of great help for understanding the importance of PPAs for PA-induced toxicity and its detoxification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Chen
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Fen Xiong
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Weiqian Wang
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Kaiyuan Jiang
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Xuanling Ye
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Gang Deng
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Changhong Wang
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai R & D Center for Standardization of Traditional Chinese Medicines, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Li Yang
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai R & D Center for Standardization of Traditional Chinese Medicines, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Aizhen Xiong
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai R & D Center for Standardization of Traditional Chinese Medicines, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Zhengtao Wang
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines and the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine Key Laboratory for New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China; Shanghai R & D Center for Standardization of Traditional Chinese Medicines, Shanghai, 201203, China
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Schramm S, Köhler N, Rozhon W. Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids: Biosynthesis, Biological Activities and Occurrence in Crop Plants. Molecules 2019; 24:E498. [PMID: 30704105 PMCID: PMC6385001 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24030498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are heterocyclic secondary metabolites with a typical pyrrolizidine motif predominantly produced by plants as defense chemicals against herbivores. They display a wide structural diversity and occur in a vast number of species with novel structures and occurrences continuously being discovered. These alkaloids exhibit strong hepatotoxic, genotoxic, cytotoxic, tumorigenic, and neurotoxic activities, and thereby pose a serious threat to the health of humans since they are known contaminants of foods including grain, milk, honey, and eggs, as well as plant derived pharmaceuticals and food supplements. Livestock and fodder can be affected due to PA-containing plants on pastures and fields. Despite their importance as toxic contaminants of agricultural products, there is limited knowledge about their biosynthesis. While the intermediates were well defined by feeding experiments, only one enzyme involved in PA biosynthesis has been characterized so far, the homospermidine synthase catalyzing the first committed step in PA biosynthesis. This review gives an overview about structural diversity of PAs, biosynthetic pathways of necine base, and necic acid formation and how PA accumulation is regulated. Furthermore, we discuss their role in plant ecology and their modes of toxicity towards humans and animals. Finally, several examples of PA-producing crop plants are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Schramm
- Biotechnology of Horticultural Crops, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckmann-Straße 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Nikolai Köhler
- Biotechnology of Horticultural Crops, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckmann-Straße 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Wilfried Rozhon
- Biotechnology of Horticultural Crops, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckmann-Straße 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
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Moreira R, Pereira DM, Valentão P, Andrade PB. Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Food Safety. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E1668. [PMID: 29874826 PMCID: PMC6032134 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19061668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Revised: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) are widely distributed in plants throughout the world, frequently in species relevant for human consumption. Apart from the toxicity that these molecules can cause in humans and livestock, PA are also known for their wide range of pharmacological properties, which can be exploited in drug discovery programs. In this work we review the current body of knowledge regarding the chemistry, toxicology, pharmacology and food safety of PA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rute Moreira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratório de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - David M Pereira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratório de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Patrícia Valentão
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratório de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Paula B Andrade
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratório de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
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15
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Local and systemic renin–angiotensin system participates in cardiopulmonary–renal interactions in monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension in the rat. Mol Cell Biochem 2016; 418:147-57. [DOI: 10.1007/s11010-016-2740-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Exploring the monocrotaline animal model for the study of pulmonary arterial hypertension: A network approach. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2015; 35:8-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pupt.2015.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Monocrotaline: histological damage and oxidant activity in brain areas of mice. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2012; 2012:697541. [PMID: 23251721 PMCID: PMC3517861 DOI: 10.1155/2012/697541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2012] [Revised: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 10/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
This work was designed to study MCT effect in histopathological analysis of hippocampus (HC) and parahippocampal cortex (PHC) and in oxidative stress (OS) parameters in brain areas such as hippocampus (HC), prefrontal cortex (PFC), and striatum (ST). Swiss mice (25–30 g) were administered a single i.p. dose of MCT (5, 50, or 100 mg/kg) or 4% Tween 80 in saline (control group). After 30 minutes, the animals were sacrificed by decapitation and the brain areas (HC, PHC, PFC, or ST) were removed for histopathological analysis or dissected and homogenized for measurement of OS parameters (lipid peroxidation, nitrite, and catalase) by spectrophotometry. Histological evaluation of brain structures of rats treated with MCT (50 and 100 mg/kg) revealed lesions in the hippocampus and parahippocampal cortex compared to control. Lipid peroxidation was evident in all brain areas after administration of MCT. Nitrite/nitrate content decreased in all doses administered in HC, PFC, and ST. Catalase activity was increased in the MCT group only in HC. In conclusion, monocrotaline caused cell lesions in the hippocampus and parahippocampal cortex regions and produced oxidative stress in the HC, PFC, and ST in mice. These findings may contribute to the neurological effects associated with this compound.
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Pyrrolizidine alkaloid isoline-induced oxidative injury in various mouse tissues. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 62:251-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2009.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2008] [Revised: 03/02/2009] [Accepted: 04/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Chen Y, Ji L, Wang H, Wang Z. Intracellular glutathione plays important roles in pyrrolizidine alkaloids-induced growth inhibition on hepatocytes. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2009; 28:357-362. [PMID: 21784027 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2009.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2009] [Revised: 05/31/2009] [Accepted: 06/13/2009] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are well-known natural hepatotoxins distributed widely in thousands of plants in the world. Adonifoline (Adon), senecionine (Sene) and monocrotaline (Mono) are retronecine-type PAs, and the present study is designed to observe the effects of intracellular glutathione on toxicity of these three PAs in human normal liver L-02 cells. The ratio of cellular reduced glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) was assayed after L-02 cells were incubated with these three PAs for various times. Results showed that Adon, Sene and Mono all significantly decreased the ratio of GSH/GSSG in L-02 cells in the time- and concentration-dependent manner. The results of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) 2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and trypan blue staining assay showed that these three PAs all significantly decreased cell viability in L-02 cells when pretreated with 10μM BSO (L-Buthionine-S-R-Sulfoximine) for 24h to deplete intracellular GSH. Further results showed that anti-oxidant compounds such as NAC (N-Acetyl-Cysteine) and GSH could rescue the cytotoxicity caused by these three PAs with BSO pretreatment. Taken together, those results suggest that intracellular GSH plays important roles in regulating the cytotoxicity induced by PAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Chen
- Department of Pharmacognosy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210038, PR China; Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Complex Prescription, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, PR China
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Dumitrascu R, Koebrich S, Dony E, Weissmann N, Savai R, Pullamsetti SS, Ghofrani HA, Samidurai A, Traupe H, Seeger W, Grimminger F, Schermuly RT. Characterization of a murine model of monocrotaline pyrrole-induced acute lung injury. BMC Pulm Med 2008; 8:25. [PMID: 19087359 PMCID: PMC2635347 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2466-8-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2008] [Accepted: 12/17/2008] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background New animal models of chronic pulmonary hypertension in mice are needed. The injection of monocrotaline is an established model of pulmonary hypertension in rats. The aim of this study was to establish a murine model of pulmonary hypertension by injection of the active metabolite, monocrotaline pyrrole. Methods Survival studies, computed tomographic scanning, histology, bronchoalveolar lavage were performed, and arterial blood gases and hemodynamics were measured in animals which received an intravenous injection of different doses of monocrotaline pyrrole. Results Monocrotaline pyrrole induced pulmonary hypertension in Sprague Dawley rats. When injected into mice, monocrotaline pyrrole induced dose-dependant mortality in C57Bl6/N and BALB/c mice (dose range 6–15 mg/kg bodyweight). At a dose of 10 mg/kg bodyweight, mice developed a typical early-phase acute lung injury, characterized by lung edema, neutrophil influx, hypoxemia and reduced lung compliance. In the late phase, monocrotaline pyrrole injection resulted in limited lung fibrosis and no obvious pulmonary hypertension. Conclusion Monocrotaline and monocrotaline pyrrole pneumotoxicity substantially differs between the animal species.
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Abstract
Pyrrolizidine poisoning in humans is regarded by most clinical toxicologists as of little relevance. However, a number of individual case studies in the West and some severe cases of mass poisoning by contaminated grains have led to increased interest in these alkaloids. The increasing use of herbal remedies, some of which contain toxic pyrrolizidines, suggests that the incidence of pyrrolizidine poisoning is likely to increase. In this review the authors describe the chemistry and metabolism of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, the salient features of pyrrolizidine poisoning, and the methods available for detection of these compounds in human fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Stewart
- Indigenous Toxicology Unit, Department of Chemical Pathology, South African Institute for Medical Research, University of the Witwatersrand Medical School, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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