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Cai X, Daniels O, Cucchiarini M, Madry H. Ectopic models recapitulating morphological and functional features of articular cartilage. Ann Anat 2021; 237:151721. [PMID: 33753232 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2021.151721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Articular cartilage is an extremely specialized connective tissue which covers all diarthrodial joints. Implantation of chondrogenic cells without or with additional biomaterial scaffolds in ectopic locationsin vivo generates substitutes of cartilage with structural and functional characteristics that are used in fundamental investigations while also serving as a basis for translational studies. METHODS Literature search in Pubmed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This narrative review summarizes the most relevant ectopic models, among which subcutaneous, intramuscular, and kidney capsule transplantation and elaborates on implanted cells and biomaterial scaffolds and on their use to recapitulate morphological and functional features of articular cartilage. Although the absence of a physiological joint environment and biomechanical stimuli is the major limiting factor, ectopic models are an established component for articular cartilage research aiming to generate a bridge between in vitro data and the clinically more relevant translational orthotopic in vivo models when their limitations are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Cai
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Daniels
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Magali Cucchiarini
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Henning Madry
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany.
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Ng J, Wei Y, Zhou B, Bhumiratana S, Burapachaisri A, Guo E, Vunjak-Novakovic G. Ectopic implantation of juvenile osteochondral tissues recapitulates endochondral ossification. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2018; 12:468-478. [PMID: 28600846 PMCID: PMC5723566 DOI: 10.1002/term.2500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Subcutaneous implantation in a mouse can be used to investigate tissue maturation in vivo. Here we demonstrate that this simple model can recapitulate endochondral ossification associated with native skeletal development. By histological and micro-computed tomography analysis we investigated morphological changes of immature bovine osteochondral tissues over the course of subcutaneous implantation in immunocompromised mice for up to 10 weeks. We observed multiple similarities between the ectopic process and native endochondral ossification: (i) permanent cartilage retention in the upper zones; (ii) progressive loss of transient cartilage accompanied by bone formation at the interface; and (iii) remodelling of nascent endochondral bone into mature cancellous bone. Importantly, these processes were mediated by osteoclastogenesis and vascularization. Taken together, these findings advance our understanding of how the simple ectopic model can be used to study phenotypic changes associated with endochondral ossification of native and engineered osteochondral tissues in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johnathan Ng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York NY
| | - Yiyong Wei
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York NY
| | - Bin Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York NY
| | - Sarindr Bhumiratana
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York NY
| | - Aonnicha Burapachaisri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York NY
| | - Edward Guo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York NY
| | - Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York NY
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York NY
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Skinner RA, Boylston E. A Modified Alizarin Red S Stain for Calcium in Glycol Methacrylate Embedded Sections of Undecalcified Bone. J Histotechnol 2013. [DOI: 10.1179/his.1987.10.3.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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Speranza VD, Skinner R, Boylston E, Fromowitz F. A Disadvantage of Alcoholic Iodine Solutions for Removal of Mercury Pigment from Tissue Sections. J Histotechnol 2013. [DOI: 10.1179/his.1987.10.4.253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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Dell'Accio F, De Bari C, Luyten FP. Molecular markers predictive of the capacity of expanded human articular chondrocytes to form stable cartilage in vivo. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2001; 44:1608-19. [PMID: 11465712 DOI: 10.1002/1529-0131(200107)44:7<1608::aid-art284>3.0.co;2-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To establish a model and associated molecular markers for monitoring the capacity of in vitro-expanded chondrocytes to generate stable cartilage in vivo. METHODS Adult human articular chondrocytes (AHAC) were prepared by collagenase digestion of samples obtained postmortem and were expanded in monolayer. Upon passaging, aliquots of chondrocyte suspensions were either injected intramuscularly into nude mice, cultured in agarose, or used for gene expression analysis. Cartilage formation in vivo was documented by histology, histochemistry, immunofluorescence for type II collagen, and proteoglycan analysis by 35S-sulfate incorporation and molecular sieve chromatography of the radiolabeled macromolecules. In situ hybridization for species-specific genomic repeats was used to discriminate human-derived from mouse-derived cells. Gene expression dynamics were analyzed by semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS Intramuscular injection of freshly isolated AHAC into nude mice resulted in stable cartilage implants that were resistant to mineralization, vascular invasion, and replacement by bone. In vitro expansion of AHAC resulted in the loss of in vivo cartilage formation. This capacity was positively associated with the expression of fibroblast growth factor receptor 3, bone morphogenetic protein 2, and alpha1(II) collagen (COL2A1), and its loss was marked by the up-regulation of activin receptor-like kinase 1 messenger RNA. Anchorage-independent growth and the reexpression of COL2A1 in agarose culture were insufficient to predict cartilage formation in vivo. CONCLUSION AHAC have a finite capacity to form stable cartilage in vivo; this capacity is lost throughout passaging and can be monitored using a nude mouse model and associated molecular markers. This cartilage-forming ability in vivo may be pivotal for successful cell-based joint surface defect repair protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Dell'Accio
- University Hospitals Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
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Włodarski KH, Włodarski P. Peculiarities of the rodent subcutaneous space for testing of bone inducing agents. Growth Factors 2001; 18:319-20. [PMID: 11519829 DOI: 10.3109/08977190109029119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Okihana H, Yang ZQ. Assessment of an ectopic bone formation system with implantation of pelleted rat primary growth cartilage cells. Bone 1997; 20:341-5. [PMID: 9108354 DOI: 10.1016/s8756-3282(97)00001-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
To assess the ectopic bone formation system, growth cartilage (GC) cells were implanted to ectopic sites, and the effect of the implanting sites and gender of animals on bone formation were examined. Each 5 x 10(5) batch of GC cells from young rat ribs was pelleted, cultured in calcification medium, and implanted to ectopic sites (in a peritoneal cavitiy or on subcutaneous muscle) in female or male rats. The implanted pellets formed bone after 3-4 weeks at the ectopic sites. Histological examination concluded that, first, a subcutaneous muscle site is more conductive to bone formation than a peritoneal cavity site and, second, the pelleted GC cells implanted in male rats formed bone more effectively than those in female rats. Therefore, at present, the ectopic bone formation system of pelleted primary GC cells onto subcutaneous muscle of male rats is an appropriate system for the evaluation of bone formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Okihana
- Fujimoto Pharmaceutical Corp., Matsubara-shi, Osaka, Japan
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Moskalewski S, Hyc A, Grzela T, Malejczyk J. Differences in cartilage formed intramuscularly or in joint surface defects by syngeneic rat chondrocytes isolated from the articular-epiphyseal cartilage complex. Cell Transplant 1993; 2:467-73. [PMID: 8167932 DOI: 10.1177/096368979300200605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Syngeneic rat chondrocytes isolated from the articular-epiphyseal cartilage complex were suspended in hyaluronic acid and transplanted intramuscularly or into joint surface defects. Transplants were fixed in ruthenium hexammonium trichloride and embedded in glycol methacrylate. In cartilage nodules produced intramuscularly, chondrocyte hypertrophy and matrix calcification were observed after 2 wk. Partial ossification occurred after 4 wk and the cartilage was almost completely replaced by an ossicle after 8 wk. Only small, dispersed groups of chondrocytes remained within the ossicle. In cartilage formed in joint surface defects a superficial and a deep zone were distinguished. Chondrocytes in the superficial zone did not hypertrophy and cartilage remained unossified. In the deep zone matrix calcification and bone formation occurred. These processes were, however, retarded in comparison with intramuscular transplants. Thus, either intraarticular environment exerted an inhibitory effect on chondrocyte hypertrophy and matrix calcification or articular chondrocytes present among transplanted cells accumulated close to the joint lumen and reconstructed normal articular cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Moskalewski
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Warsaw Medical School, Poland
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Glade MJ, Kanwar YS, Hefley TJ. Enzymatic isolation of chondrocytes from immature rabbit articular cartilage and maintenance of phenotypic expression in culture. J Bone Miner Res 1991; 6:217-26. [PMID: 1852087 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.5650060303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The studies included here identify factors affecting cartilage digestion by crude bacterial collagenase (cCGN) and describe a cartilage digestion medium that maximizes both tissue digestion rate and viable cell yield. The basal digestion medium contained 100 mM NaCl, 3 mM K2HPO4, 1 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgSO4, 10 mM NaHCO3, 60 mM sorbitol, 5 mg/ml of dextrose, 1 mg/ml of albumin, and 2 mg/ml of cCGN in 25 mM HEPES at pH 7.2. Approximately 45% of articular cartilage tissue was digested in this basal medium in 6 h at 37 degrees C, yielding 6.8 x 10(6) viable cells per g tissue digested. The addition of 30 microM tosyllysylchloromethane (TLCM) increased the fraction of tissue digested in 6 h to 68% (p less than 0.05) and doubled viable cell yields to 13.6 x 10(6) per g tissue digested (p less than 0.05). Withholding Mg, decreasing NaCl to 70 mM, and adding 30 mM KCl increased fractional tissue digestion to 81% (p less than 0.01) and doubled viable cell yield yet again (to 29.9 x 10(6) viable cells per g tissue digested). Supplementation with TLCM increased the rate of cartilage digestion and the yield of viable cells regardless of cCGN source or lot. Additional trypsin (0.25%) inhibited tissue digestion and decreased cell yield; this effect was reversible with the addition of TLCM. The cartilage digestion medium developed in these studies (low Mg with added K and TLCM) was very effective in digesting articular, scapular, rib, and growth plate cartilage, as well as in yielding a large number of viable chondrocytes. These cells grew well in culture and maintained their chondrocytic characteristics, secreting predominantly type II collagen and large macromolecular forms of chondroitin sulfate-rich proteoglycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Glade
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611
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Bessho K, Tanaka N, Matsumoto J, Tagawa T, Murata M. Human dentin-matrix-derived bone morphogenetic protein. J Dent Res 1991; 70:171-5. [PMID: 1999554 DOI: 10.1177/00220345910700030301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) was extracted from human dentin matrix with 4 mol/L guanidine-HCl and was purified by liquid chromatography. SDS-PAGE and IEF showed that the purified BMP was homogeneous and induced new bone formation in situ after three weeks when implanted into muscle pouches in Wistar rats. The molecular weight of BMP was estimated to be about 20.0 kDa by SDS-PAGE, and the pI value was 8.8 by IEF. Amino acid analysis suggested that BMP is a protein containing 191 amino acids. A partial amino acid sequence was obtained from the final purified BMP. Dentin-matrix-derived BMP is probably not identical to, but is similar to, bone-matrix-derived BMP, though both types of BMP have the same action in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Bessho
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Mie University, School of Medicine, Japan
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Bessho K, Tagawa T, Murata M. Purification of bone morphogenetic protein derived from bovine bone matrix. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1989; 165:595-601. [PMID: 2597148 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(89)80008-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) was extracted from the bovine bone matrix and purified by liquid chromatography. The molecular weight of the BMP was 18 kDa by SDS-PAGE, and its pI value was 4.9. Amino acid analysis suggested that the BMP is a polypeptide containing 163 amino acids. In the present study, telopeptide-free type I collagen was used as a carrier of BMP.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Bessho
- Department of Oral Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Mie University, Japan
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Moskalewski S, Osiecka A, Malejczyk J. Comparison of bone formed intramuscularly after transplantation of scapular and calvarial osteoblasts. Bone 1988; 9:101-6. [PMID: 3044403 DOI: 10.1016/8756-3282(88)90110-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Previous work suggested that osteoblasts determine the size of the bone marrow area within the bone and that calvarial osteoblasts differ from those induced intramuscularly by cartilage formed by transplanted epiphyseal chondrocytes. This study reports morphological observations of bone formed by transplanted scapular and calvarial osteoblasts isolated from bones of young rats. In intact scapulas of 28-day-old rats the percentage area occupied by bone tissue in relation to bone marrow was 6 times larger than in parietal bones of comparable age. Isolated syngeneic scapular osteoblasts usually produced an ossicle with similar general structure and ratio bone tissue/bone marrow area as in intact scapulas. In transplants of calvarial osteoblasts numerous islands of bone tissue with a small amount of bone marrow appeared. Bone formed in allogenic transplants was rejected. These results suggest that osteoblasts from endochondral scapular bone may have different properties than those from intramembranous calvarial bones. Alternatively, the large amount of medullary space in bone produced by transplanted scapular osteoblasts could result from their contamination with bone marrow stromal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Moskalewski
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical Academy, Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract
Periost-free, live and/or devitalized cartilaginous long bone rudiments of fetal mice were transplanted under the renal capsule of adult syngeneic mice to study the role of cells and intercellular matrix in the recruitment and formation of osteoclasts and osteoblasts, both identified by means of enzyme- and immunohistochemical methods. Live bone rudiments recruited host-derived osteoclasts within 5 days after transplantation. Osteoblasts developed as rapidly as osteoclasts and participated in the modeling of the rudiments into hemopoietic bone marrow containing ossicles. Devitalized bone rudiments, killed before osteoclastic invasion had occurred, did not recruit osteoclasts or osteoblasts, and were not resorbed up till 35 days after transplantation. Co-transplantation of live and devitalized bone rudiments however resulted in osteoclastic resorption of the killed rudiments, starting 9 days after transplantation. Again the live rudiments were modeled into ossicles. Devitalized bone rudiments which had been invaded by osteoclasts before killing and transplantation, did recruit host osteoclasts, but at a slower rate than live rudiments, and depending on the number of resorption sites at the time of transplantation. Osteoblasts were not formed. These data suggest that in developing long bones chondrocyte activity is involved in the recruitment of osteoclasts as well as osteoblasts. Matrix components diffusing from resorbing surfaces seem to be involved in osteoclast recruitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- F P van de Wijngaert
- Department of Oral Cell Biology, Academic Center of Dentistry, ACTA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Moskalewski S, Malejczyk J, Osiecka A. Structural differences between bone formed intramuscularly following the transplantation of isolated calvarial bone cells or chondrocytes. ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY 1986; 175:271-7. [PMID: 3548483 DOI: 10.1007/bf00389605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Bone formed in intramuscular transplants of isolated syngeneic calvarial bone cells in mice, was compared with endochondral bone induced by cartilage produced by analogous transplants of isolated epiphyseal chondrocytes, as well as with parietal bones forming the bulk of the calvaria. Transplanted calvarial cells produced islands of bone, some of which contained intraosseous cavities. Osteoclasts inside these cavities were observed only in 14-day-old transplants and bone marrow cells in 28-day and older transplants. On the contrary, bone marrow appeared soon after formation of bone trabeculae in endochondral bone. The percentage area occupied by bone marrow in these specimens was about twentyfold larger than in the bone formed by transplanted bone cells. On the other hand, the bone marrow area in the latter type of bone was somewhat smaller but of similar order as in parietal bones. Moreover, both in parietal bones and in bone formed by isolated bone cells, the bone marrow was devoid of fat cells which were numerous in bone arising by endochondral ossification. It appears, therefore, that the ratio of bone marrow to the bone tissue area in parietal bones depends more on the intrinsic properties of osteoblasts than on the local factors in the environment of the developing bone. In the case of bone induced by cartilage, the bone marrow/bone tissue area could be determined both by the extent of cartilage resorption by vascularized tissue and by the properties of osteoblasts.
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