Cytogenetic effects of mycoplasmal infection of cell cultures: a review

Establishment of a cobia (Rachycentron canadum) gill cell line: A valuable tool for immune response studies

Cobia (Rachycentron canadum), a commercially important marine fish, has been used to develop a novel gill cell line, designated CG, for the first time. The CG cell line was cultured in Leibovitz's-15 medium with 5% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and successfully sub-cultured more than 110 passages. It underwent verification through sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. Optimal growth rate was achieved when the CG cell line was cultured in a medium supplemented with 5% FBS, 1% Penicillin-Streptomycin (P/S), and 5 parts per thousand (ppt) of coral sea salt water, maintained at a temperature of 27 °C. The addition of 5 ppt of salt in the growth medium suggests that this cell line could be a viable in vitro tool for marine ecosystem toxicological studies or for culturing marine parasitic microorganisms. The CG cell line was also successfully transfected using the pTurbo-GFP plasmids, showing an 18% efficiency, with observable GFP expression. Furthermore, the cell line has been effectively cryopreserved. Gene expression analysis indicated that the CG cell line exhibits responsive regulation of immune gene expression when exposured to various stimulants, highlighting its potential as an in vitro platform for immune response studies. This makes it suitable for exploring dynamic immune signaling pathways and host-pathogen interactions, thereby offering valuable insights for therapeutic development.

Genomic Stability Testing of Pluripotent Stem Cells

Pluripotent stem cell (PSC) cultures are subjected to selective pressures that can result in acquisition and expansion of recurrent genetic abnormalities at any time. These recurrent abnormalities enhance the variant cells harboring them with a competitive advantage over wild-type cells. Variant cells can eventually supplant wild-type cells entirely and become fixed in culture. Such variants can impact the efficacy of PSCs in research and clinical applications. Therefore, routine genomic characterization is required for reliable and effective use of PSCs. In this article we describe the capabilities and limitations of several assays commonly used for assessing PSC genomic stability. Based on this analysis, we provide a recommendation for integrating assays into a comprehensive testing regimen that maximizes coverage while minimizing cost. © 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Mycoplasma detection and elimination are necessary for the application of stem cell from human dental apical papilla to tissue engineering and regenerative medicine

BACKGROUND

Recently, postnatal stem cells from dental papilla with neural crest origin have been considered as one of potent stem cell sources in regenerative medicine regarding their multi-differentiation capacity and relatively easy access. However, almost human oral tissues have been reported to be infected by mycoplasma which gives rise to oral cavity in teeth, and mycoplasma contamination of ex-vivo cultured stem cells from such dental tissues and its effect on stem cell culture has received little attention.

RESULTS

In this study, mycoplama contamination was evaluated with stem cells from apical papilla which were isolated from human third molar and premolars from various aged patients undergoing orthodontic therapy. The ex-vivo expanded stem cells from apical papilla were found to express stem cell markers such as Stro-1, CD44, nestin and CD133, but mycoplama contamination was detected in almost all cell cultures of the tested 20 samples, which was confirmed by mycoplasma-specific gene expression and fluorescence staining. Such contaminated mycoplasma could be successfully eliminated using elimination kit, and proliferation test showed decreased proliferation activity in mycoplasma-contaminated cells. After elimination of contaminated mycoplasma, stem cells from apical papilla showed osteogenic and neural lineage differentiation under certain culture conditions.

CONCLUSION

Our study proposes that the evaluation of mycoplasma contamination and elimination process might be required in the use of stem cells from apical papilla for their potent applications to tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Microbiological Quality Control for Laboratory Rodents and Lagomorphs

Mice (Mus musculus), rats (Rattus norvegicus), other rodent species, and domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) have been used in research for over 100 years. During the first half of the 20th century, microbiological quality control of lab animals was at best rudimentary as colonies were conventionally housed and little or no diagnostic testing was done. Hence, animal studies were often curtailed and confounded by infectious disease (Mobraaten and Sharp, 1999; Morse, 2007; Weisbroth, 1999). By the 1950s, it became apparent to veterinarians in the nascent field of comparative medicine that disease-free animals suitable for research could not be produced by standard veterinary disease control measures (e.g., improved sanitation and nutrition, antimicrobial treatments) in conventional facilities. Henry Foster, the veterinarian who founded Charles River Breeding Laboratories in 1948 and a pioneer in the large-scale production of laboratory rodents, stated in a seminar presented at the 30th anniversary of AALAS, “After a variety of frustrating health-related problems, it was decided that a major change in the company’s philosophy was required and an entirely different approach was essential”. Consequently, he and others developed innovative biosecurity systems to eliminate and exclude pathogens (Allen, 1999). In 1958, Foster reported on the Cesarean-originated barrier-sustained (COBS) process for the large-scale production of specific pathogen-free (SPF) laboratory rodents (Foster, 1958). To eliminate horizontally transmitted pathogens, a hysterectomy was performed on a near-term dam from a contaminated or conventionally housed colony. The gravid uterus was pulled through a disinfectant solution into a sterile flexible film isolator where the pups were removed from the uterus and suckled on axenic (i.e., germ-free) foster dams. After being mated to expand their number and associated with a cocktail of nonpathogenic bacteria to normalize their physiology and prime their immune system, rederived rodents were transferred to so-called barrier rooms for large-scale production. The room-level barrier to adventitious infection entailed disinfection of the room, equipment, and supplies, limiting access to trained and properly gowned personnel, and the application of new technologies such as high-efficiency particulate air-filtration of incoming air (Dubos and Schaedler, 1960; Foster, 1980; Schaedler and Orcutt, 1983; Trexler and Orcutt, 1999). The axenic and associated rodents mentioned in the COBS process are collectively classified as gnotobiotic to indicate that they have a completely known microflora. By contrast, barrier-reared rodent colonies are not gnotobiotic because they are housed in uncovered cages and thus acquire a complex microflora from the environment, supplies, personnel, and other sources. Instead, they are described as SPF to indicate that according to laboratory testing, they are free from infection with a defined list of infectious agents, commonly known as an ‘exclusion’ list.

Endothelial cells derived from nuclear reprogramming

The endothelium plays a pivotal role in vascular homeostasis, regulating the tone of the vascular wall, and its interaction with circulating blood elements. Alterations in endothelial functions facilitate the infiltration of inflammatory cells and permit vascular smooth muscle proliferation and platelet aggregation. Therefore, endothelial dysfunction is an early event in disease processes including atherosclerosis, and because of its critical role in vascular health, the endothelium is worthy of the intense focus it has received. However, there are limitations to studying human endothelial function in vivo, or human vascular segments ex vivo. Thus, methods for endothelial cell (EC) culture have been developed and refined. Recently, methods to derive ECs from pluripotent cells have extended the scientific range of human EC studies. Pluripotent stem cells may be generated, expanded, and then differentiated into ECs for in vitro studies. Constructs for molecular imaging can also be employed to facilitate tracking these cells in vivo. Furthermore, one can generate patient-specific ECs to study the effects of genetic or epigenetic alterations on endothelial behavior. Finally, there is the opportunity to apply these cells for vascular therapy. This review focuses on the generation of ECs from stem cells; their characterization by genetic, histological, and functional studies; and their translational applications.

Management of mycoplasma contamination in in vitro culture of Plasmodium falciparum without antibiotic treatment - a preliminary report

The presence of foreign contamination, especially of mycoplasmas, is a major hindrance in long term in vitro cultivation of Plasmodium falciparum and may be a source of false-positive results. Efforts have been made to control mycoplasma contamination by trypsinization of P. falciparum culture. Samples of accidentally contaminated cultures were used for this study. The presence of Mycoplasma orale in contaminated culture was ascertained by a species-specific PCR-based mycoplasma detection kit (Takara; Cat. No.6601). Trypsinization was carried out using trypsin-EDTA and the growth profile of P. falciparum was monitored for more than three weeks post-trypsinization. The studies were carried out with four different P. falciparum strains, various serum supplements and human erythrocytes belonging to different blood groups. It was interesting to observe that, irrespective of the different strains of P. falciparum and the variety of serum supplements and erythrocytes, mycoplasma contamination can successfully be removed from P. falciparum culture by trypsinization. No antibiotic except gentamicin, which is routinely used, was added to the medium. Results of this study indicate that the frequent appearance of mycoplasma in continuous long-term cultures of P. falciparum can be managed by trypsinization.

An animal cell culture: Advance technology for modern research

At the present time animal cell culture is more significant and multifarious application tool for current research streams. A lot of field assorted from animal cell culture such: stem cell biology, IVF technology, cancer cell biology, monoclonal antibody production, recombinant protein production, gene therapy, vaccine manufacturing, novel drug selection and improvement. In this review conclude animal cell culture as well as its requirements.

Semi-automated relative quantification of cell culture contamination with mycoplasma by Photoshop-based image analysis on immunofluorescence preparations

Mycoplasma contamination in cell culture is a serious setback for the cell-culturist. The experiments undertaken using contaminated cell cultures are known to yield unreliable or false results due to various morphological, biochemical and genetic effects. Earlier surveys revealed incidences of mycoplasma contamination in cell cultures to range from 15 to 80%. Out of a vast array of methods for detecting mycoplasma in cell culture, the cytological methods directly demonstrate the contaminating organism present in association with the cultured cells. In this investigation, we report the adoption of a cytological immunofluorescence assay (IFA), in an attempt to obtain a semi-automated relative quantification of contamination by employing the user-friendly Photoshop-based image analysis. The study performed on 77 cell cultures randomly collected from various laboratories revealed mycoplasma contamination in 18 cell cultures simultaneously by IFA and Hoechst DNA fluorochrome staining methods. It was observed that the Photoshop-based image analysis on IFA stained slides was very valuable as a sensitive tool in providing quantitative assessment on the extent of contamination both per se and in comparison to cellularity of cell cultures. The technique could be useful in estimating the efficacy of anti-mycoplasma agents during decontaminating measures.

Comparison of the measurement of lysosomal hydrolase activity in mycoplasma-contaminated and non-contaminated human fibroblast cultures treated with mycoplasma removal agent

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effect of both mycoplasma contamination and of its remover (MRA), through human fibroblasts culture over the activity of some lysosomal hydrolases.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Activity was measured in contaminated fibroblasts before and after the addition of MRA. Results were compared with the enzymatic activity in control fibroblasts with and without MRA.

RESULTS

Only beta-glucosidase showed no significant alteration in the presence of either mycoplasma or MRA. Total hexosaminidase and beta-galactosidase underwent significant interference in the presence of the mycoplasma and the MRA. The % of hexosaminidase A and arylsulphatase A altered their activity only in the presence of MRA. Beta-glucuronidase changed its activity only in the presence of mycoplasma.

CONCLUSIONS

The fibroblast enzymes behaved differently in the presence of MRA and/or mycoplasma, demonstrating the sensitivity of these hydrolases. Our work suggests that mycoplasma and MRA alter the activity of some lysosomal hydrolases.

Immunomodulatory properties of Mycoplasma pulmonis. II. Studies on the mechanisms of immunomodulation

Mycoplasma infection affects the host's immune system in different ways. In this work, a kinetic approach was used to try to determine the mechanisms by which Mycoplasma cause these effects. Experiments were performed using Balb/c mice infected with Mycoplasma pulmonis and several immunological parameters were determined. It was found that at days 10 and 15 post-infection, there were significant changes in the percentages of CD4+ and CD8 + cells, in both peripheral blood and the thymus. Significant sequential increases in concentrations of both IFN-gamma and IL-4 were detected in sera, such that at day 15, there was a peak in IFN-gamma, concentration and at day 38, IL-4 concentration also peaked. By day 46, both IFN-gamma and IL-4 fell to control levels despite continued infection. Delayed hypersensitivity (DTH) was reduced in infected animals compared to non-infected controls. A small recovery in DTH was observed at day 30, which was reduced again by day 40. Altogether, the results show features of a transitional shift from Th1 to Th2 in animals that are ultimately immunologically incompetent (in both cellular and humoral immunity). It appears to be this state of incompetence that allows the microorganism to survive and thus provides an explanation for the chronic state of the disease, which is a characteristic of Mycoplasma infection.

Do mycoplasmas cause human cancer?

A linkage between mycoplasmas and malignancy was mainly proposed in the 1960s when human-associated mycoplasmas were becoming of interest given the novel characterization of the human respiratory pathogen Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Associations with leukemia and other malignancies, however, were largely ascribed to tissue-culture contamination, which is now recognized as a significant potential problem in molecular biology circles. A few epidemiological studies, however, continue to raise concern over such a linkage. As well, in vitro data have demonstrated the potential for some mycoplasmas to induce karyotypic changes and malignant transformation during chronic tissue-culture infestation. As cellular and molecular mechanisms for such transformation become studied, a resurgence of interest in this area is inevitable. A role for mycoplasmas in malignancy of any sort is conjectural, but there remains a need to continue with focussed epidemiological and laboratory investigations.Key words: mycoplasma, cancer, oncogenesis, leukemia.

Intracellular DNA replication and long-term survival of pathogenic mycoplasmas

We examined intracellular survival and growth of pathogenic mycoplasmas (Mycoplasma penetrans, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma genitalium) in cultured human cells. By using the eukaryotic nuclear DNA synthesis inhibitor, aphidicolin, we detected the selective synthesis of mycoplasma (My) and mitochondria (Mt) DNA, which could be further differentiated by restriction enzyme analyses. Also, intracellular M. pneumoniae and M. penetrans infectivity of human cells was detected over 6 months using subfractionation of infected cells and determination of mycoIplasma colony forming units (cfu). For M. genitalium, which we failed to re-grow from infected cells, species-specific PCR primers were used to implicate long-term mycoplasma survivability. Data indicated that pathogenic mycoplasmas reside and replicate intracellularly over extended periods in human cells, consistent with the ability of mycoplasmas to circumvent antibiotic therapy and immune surveillance and establish chronic infections.

Purification and characterization of Mycoplasma penetrans Ca2+/Mg2+-dependent endonuclease

The major nuclease from Mycoplasma penetrans has been purified to homogeneity. The enzyme seems to be present as a membrane-associated precursor of 50 kDa and as a peripheral membrane monomeric polypeptide of 40 kDa that is easily removed by washing of cells with isotonic buffers and in the aqueous phase upon Triton partitioning of Triton X-114-solubilized protein. The 40-kDa nuclease was extracted from M. penetrans cells by Triton X-114 and phase fractionation and was further purified by chromatography on Superdex 75 and chelating Sepharose (Zn2+ form) columns. By gel filtration, the apparent molecular mass was 40 kDa. The purified enzyme exhibits both a nicking activity on superhelical and linear double-stranded DNA and a nuclease activity on RNA and single-stranded DNA. No exonuclease activity was found for this enzyme. This nuclease required both Mg2+ (optimum, 5 mM) and Ca2+ (optimum, 2 mM) for activity and exhibited a pH optimum between pH 7 and 8 for DNase activity. It was inhibited by Zn2+, Mn2+, heparin, sodium dodecyl sulfate, and chelator agents such EDTA and EGTA, but no effect was observed with ATP, 2-mercaptoethanol, N-ethylmaleimide, dithiothreitol, nonionic detergents, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, and iodoacetamide. Nuclease activity was inhibited by diethylpyrocarbonate at both pH 6 and 8 and by pepstatin, suggesting the involvement of a histidine and an aspartate in the active site. When added to human lymphoblast nuclei, the purified M. penetrans endonuclease induced internucleosomal fragmentation of the chomatin into oligonucleosomal fragments. On the basis of this result, and taking into account the fact that M. penetrans has the capacity to invade eucaryotic cells, one can suggest, but not assert, that produced Ca2+/Mg2+-dependent endonuclease may alter the nucleic acid metabolism of host cells by DNA and/or RNA degradation and may act as a potential pathogenic determinant.

Application of a Mycoplasma group-specific PCR for monitoring decontamination of Mycoplasma-infected Chlamydia sp. strains

Mycoplasma contamination of biological materials remains a major problem. Most contaminations are caused by the use of Mycoplasma-contaminated cell lines. We adapted a Mycoplasma group-specific PCR to detect Mycoplasma contamination in cell lines and demonstrate its use in monitoring decontamination procedures with Mycoplasma-contaminated suspensions of Chlamydia spp. Three different methods were investigated: the use of Mycoplasma-specific antiserum in cell culture, physical separation by the combined use of enzymatic treatment and differential centrifugation, and the use of detergents. With these methods only incubation with Triton X-100 resulted in decontamination of Mycoplasma-contaminated suspensions of several laboratory strains of Chlamydia pneumoniae, C. pecorum, and C. trachomatis. Only one C. pneumoniae strain, UZG-1, was sensitive to Triton X-100 treatment. Since 39 of 40 throat swabs from patients with symptoms of an upper respiratory tract infection had positive reactions in the Mycoplasma group-specific PCR, this procedure could also have clinical significance in attempts to propagate C. pneumoniae strains from clinical specimens.

Mycoplasmas and oncogenesis: persistent infection and multistage malignant transformation

Oncogenic potential of human mycoplasmas was studied using cultured mouse embryo cells, C3H/10T1/2 (C3H). Mycoplasma fermentans and Mycoplasma penetrans, mycoplasmas found in unusually high frequencies among patients with AIDS, were examined. Instead of acute transformation, a multistage process in promotion and progression of malignant cell transformation with long latency was noted; after 6 passages (1 wk per passage) of persistent infection with M. fermentans, C3H cells exhibited phenotypic changes with malignant characteristics that became progressively more prominent with further prolonged infection. Up to at least the 11th passage, all malignant changes were reversible if mycoplasmas were eradicated by antibiotic treatment. Further persistent infection with the mycoplasmas until 18 passages resulted in an irreversible form of transformation that included the ability to form tumors in animals and high soft agar cloning efficiency. Whereas chromosomal loss and translocational changes in C3H cells infected by either mycoplasma during the reversible stage were not prominent, the onset of the irreversible phase of transformation coincided with such karyotypic alteration. Genetic instability--i.e., prominent chromosomal alteration of permanently transformed cells--was most likely caused by mutation of a gene(s) responsible for fidelity of DNA replication or repair. Once induced, chromosomal alterations continued to accumulate both in cultured cells and in animals without the continued presence of the transforming microbes. Mycoplasma-mediated multistage oncogenesis exhibited here shares many characteristics found in the development of human cancer.

Application of PCR for detection and identification of mycoplasma contamination in virus stocks

A nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect and identify mycoplasma contaminants in viral stocks. The results of the PCR assay proved to be a sensitive and accurate indicator of the true status of the stock tested. Those samples positive by agar culture or Hoechst stain were also positive by PCR. Those samples that were inconclusive by Hoechst stain (10.05%) could be clearly determined to be mycoplasma positive or negative by PCR. The PCR assay also detected those fastidious species of mycoplasma that gave false negative results by the direct culture method. In many respects the PCR-based mycoplasma detection method described is superior to the agar culture and Hoechst staining detection methods. In this study, the PCR assay detected substantially more mycoplasma-positive viral stocks than did the agar culture assay. Due to its speed, sensitivity, and reliability, the PCR assay is of particular value in monitoring the process of removing mycoplasma from contaminated stocks. Furthermore, the PCR amplification products can be analyzed by restriction analysis to rapidly identify the species of the mycoplasma contaminating the stock tested.

Is LM7 a new human retrovirus or a mycoplasma virion?

A putative retrovirus called LM7 was recently isolated from a patient with MS. This retrovirus was detected in LM7 and LM711 cultured human leptomeningeal cells. In the present work, nucleic acids from LM711 cell culture supernatants were purified and subjected to avian myeloblastosis viral (AMV) reverse transcriptase and to random polymerase chain reaction (rPCR) in order to characterize the genomic material of LM7 virions. Analysis of reverse transcription products allowed the detection of an approximately 14 kb ribonucleic acid in all LM711 cell culture supernatants. However, sequencing of rPCR-amplified molecules as well as RNA blotting data showed essentially that all tested cells producing LM7 particles were infected with mycoplasma. Moreover, purification of LM7 particles onto a linear sucrose density gradient established that the 14 kb nucleic acid was always associated with the 1.19-1.21 g ml-1 sucrose fractions, which are known to correspond to the buoyant density of mycoplasma. In addition, no viral genomic RNA was detected in the 1.17 g ml-1 sucrose fraction containing the low reverse transcription activity. These results strongly suggest that microscopic images and serological data could be related to mycoplasma and/or to a virion associated with the bacteria. The LM7 particle might be a new and additional enveloped virus able to infect Mycoplasma hyorhinis hosts. Thus, for instance, it would be presumptuous to assert, with our current understanding, that the LM7 virion is one of the causal agents of MS in humans.

Inhibition of HIV type 1 reverse transcriptase assay by nucleases produced by contaminating mycoplasmas

Mycoplasmal contamination of HIV-1-infected cells has been found to induce reduction of reverse transcriptase (RT) activity; however, the exact mechanism of this phenomenon was not clearly elucidated. Our results indicate that the apparent reduction in RT activity is due to a calcium-dependent nuclease(s) that is (are) produced by contaminating mycoplasmas. The interference with the RT assay was found to be due to the degradation of products of the RT activity. Addition of EGTA at a 1 mM concentration was sufficient to remove the inhibitory effect. The particular HIV-1-producing cell line that was under study was found to be contaminated with Mycoplasma fermentans and Mycoplasma pirum and the latter was isolated in pure culture. Nuclease activity was also observed with pure cultures of mycoplasmas from different species. The activity was found to be of the endonuclease type because it was active with both supercoiled and linear DNAs.

Detection of mycoplasma contaminations by the polymerase chain reaction

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been used for the general detection of Mollicutes. 25 Mycoplasma and Acholeplasma species were detected including important contaminants of cell cultures such as M. orale, M. arginini, M. hyorhinis, M. fermentans, A. laidlawii and additional human and animal mycoplasmas. PCR reactions were performed using a set of nested primers defined from conserved regions of the 16S rRNA gene. The detection limit was determined to be 1 fg mycoplasma DNA, which is equivalent to 1-2 genome copies of the 16S rRNA coding region. The identity of the amplification products was confirmed by agarose gel electrophoresis and restriction enzyme analysis. DNA from closely and distantly related micro-organisms did not give rise to specific amplification products. The method presented here offers a much more sensitive, specific and rapid assay for the detection of mycoplasmas than the existing ones.

A simple method to eliminate mycoplasma from cell cultures

The efficacy of several antibiotic treatments to eliminate mycoplasma from Vero cells contaminated chronically with Mycoplasma orale II were tested. Minocyclin, Kanamycin, Tylosine and Roxitromycin, at non cytotoxic concentrations, were assayed alone or in different combinations. Mycoplasma contamination was effectively eradicated without recurrence once the following regimen was applied: Incubation of contaminated cells with Tylosine (250 micrograms/ml) for 12 days followed by incubation with Minocycline (5 micrograms/ml) for 10 days. This treatment was not deleterious for cell growth, it was effective after only one application and it was successful to eradicate mycoplasma from other contaminated eukaryotic continuous cell lines.

Identification of Mycoplasma pirum genes involved in the salvage pathways for nucleosides

Genes encoding enzymes involved in the salvage pathway for nucleosides have been cloned and sequenced from the mollicute Mycoplasma pirum. One of them, encoding deoxyriboaldolase, was functionally identified by complementation of an Escherichia coli mutant. These genes are clustered, suggesting an operon organization, and they are immediately followed by the putative gene for the triose phosphate isomerase, an enzyme used during glycolysis.

Induction of cytokines in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells by mycoplasmas

Various species of mycoplasmas were tested for their ability to induce cytokine production in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Human PBMC were incubated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae, M. hyorhinis, M. arginini, M. salivarium, M. orale, M. gallisepticum or A. laidlawii for 48 hr, and the activities of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interferon (IFN) in the supernatants were determined by ELISA or bioassay. All mycoplasma species induced IL-1 beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha, although IL-2 was induced only by M. pneumoniae. IFN was induced by 5 of the 7 species, and the IFN produced was antigenically confirmed to be mainly IFN-alpha. On the other hand, mycoplasma-stimulated cultures did not contain detectable amounts of IFN-beta and IL-4 activities. Furthermore, the cytokines were induced by mycoplasmal contaminating cells in human PBMC as well as by mycoplasma alone. These results suggest that many kinds of cytokines induced by mycoplasma contamination in cell culture affect immunological experiments in vitro.

Role of mycoplasma infection in the cytopathic effect induced by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in infected cell lines

In addition to previously reported tetracycline analogs, other antibiotics known for antimycoplasmal activities inhibited the cytopathic effect in CEM cl13 cells infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) or HIV-2 but were unable to block virus replication. A contaminating mycoplasma was isolated from our CEM cl13 cells and identified as a strain of Mycoplasma fermentans. Following infection of lymphoblastoid (CEM) or promonocytic (U937 and THP1) cell lines with HIV-1, cytopathic effect was observed only in association with mycoplasmal contamination. Moreover, HIV-1 infection of U937 cells after experimental inoculation with a human isolate of M. fermentans led to pronounced cell killing. We have verified that this effect is not merely an artifact caused by arginine and/or glucose depletion in the cell culture medium. These results confirm that mollicutes, in particular M. fermentans, are able to act synergistically with HIV-1 to kill infected cells in some in vitro systems.

Species differentiation of mycoplasmas by EF-Tu specific monoclonal antibodies

Ten mouse hybridoma cell lines producing IgG monoclonal antibodies to mycoplasmal elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu) were established. These mAbs showed different degrees of cross-reactivity between mollicutes and even other bacteria. This finding, indicating protein structure diversities of pan bacterial EF-Tu should permit species differentiation of mycoplasmas by epitope pattern analysis of a single protein. Epitope patterns of 23 mollicute type strains and of 40 M. hominis isolates were determined by ELISA. All M. hominis patterns were found to be closely related whereas intrageneric patterns differed in a species specific manner.

DNA fingerprinting with oligonucleotides can differentiate cell lines derived from the same tumor

Oligonucleotide fingerprinting was applied to investigate the relatedness of several cell lines that were established between 1973 and 1977 from a teratocarcinoma. We were able to distinguish cell lines derived at different times. In addition, sublines from one cell line (PYS-2) could be discriminated by using a combination of different probes. Therefore multilocus fingerprinting with oligonucleotides is a useful method for monitoring changes in cell lines kept in culture for many generations.

Elimination of mycoplasmas from cell cultures by a novel soft agar technique

Mycoplasmal infection of cell cultures remains a significant threat to diagnostic and research procedures. In certain defined situations, curing of mycoplasmal infected cultures is a reasonable exercise. Four methods of curing were compared: treatment with BM-cycline, 5 bromouracil, use of specific antisera and treatment of infected cells suspended in soft agar with antibiotics. Antisera treatments were of low efficiency of curing: 50%. None of nine infected cell lines treated with 5-bromouracil were consistently cured of mycoplasmas. The use of BM-cycline was effective for some, but not all lines and required long periods of treatment, 12-21 days. 35 naturally or deliberately infected cultures were treated in soft agar a total of 119 times. This procedure which consisted of suspending infected cultures in soft agar containing appropriate antibiotics resulted in successful mycoplasmal elimination 118/119 times. This soft agar technique took 1-3 days. In separate studies, it was shown that certain Mycoplasma fermentans strains were resisted to this and other curing methods. This may be due to their intracellular location. Such strains may be more amenable to antibiotics that penetrate mammalian cells. It is concluded that the soft agar technique is a rapid, efficient and reliable method to eliminate cell culture mycoplasmas.

Analysis of Mycoplasma hyorhinis DNA in the presence of host cells without growing the mycoplasma axenically

Mycoplasma hyorhinis coisolates with the mitochondria of the cells in which it is carried as an infection. Since both mitochondria and mycoplasmas synthesize DNA by using the prokaryotic DNA polymerase gamma, the use of aphidicolin, which inhibits eukaryotic DNA polymerase alpha, allows for selective synthesis of mycoplasmal and mitochondrial DNA. The restriction patterns of mitochondria and mycoplasmas can easily be differentiated from each other in mixtures of both DNAs. Thus, it is possible to study the molecular biology of this noncultivable mycoplasma in situ rather than after growth in artificial media, with its potential genetic consequences during adjustment to axenic growth.

Fast and simple procedure for the detection of cell culture mycoplasmas using a single monoclonal antibody

The detection of mycoplasmas in cell cultures is still a problem, especially in those laboratories in which the detection and identification of microorganisms is not established as a routine procedure. In our laboratory, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have been prepared to Acholeplasma laidlawii, Mycoplasma hyorhinis, Mycoplasma orale, Mycoplasma arginini and Mycoplasma salivarium. 30 mAbs were obtained and one of these, designated CCM-2, was shown to bind to all five mycoplasma species. It also bound to Mycoplasma fermentans, Mycoplasma hominis and to all wild types (n = 54), isolated from cell cultures submitted to our laboratory. The mAb was used in a immunofluorescent assay (IF) and the method correlated with the microbiological assay. Using this mAb immunofluorescent staining of cells is a fast and simple procedure for mycoplasma detection in cell cultures.

Mycoplasma detection in cell culture by concomitant use of bisbenzamide and fluoresceinated antibody

Conditions are presented for application of both bisbenzamide (Hoechst 33258) stain and a specific fluoresceinated anti-Mycoplasma hyorhinis IgG to a single cell culture preparation. This allows the same field on a slide to be viewed for presumptive diagnosis of any cell culture contaminant mycoplasma by bisbenzamide staining and for definitive diagnosis of M. hyorhinis strains using fluoresceinated antibody. The use of this method plus a cultural procedure will permit identification of the "noncultivable" M. hyorhinis strain DBS 1050.

Interactions between mycoplasmas and the immune system

Mycoplasmas are a heterogenous group of prokaryotic organisms causing a wide variety of diseases, including autoimmune disorders. Thus, it is not surprising that various mycoplasmas strains, including Mycoplasma arginini, M. arthritidis, M. neurolyticum and M. pulmonis, are able to regulate the immune response. Though some of the studies of the immunomodulatory action of mycoplasmas have been done in vivo, the majority of the investigations have been conducted in vitro. This has led to the recognition that mycoplasmas are polyclonal activators of both B and T cells from several species, acting through MHC-restricted or -unrestricted pathways. Mycoplasma activation not only induces T-cell proliferation but also leads but to the formation of cytotoxic T cells. We, as well as others, have shown that mycoplasma-mediated B-cell activation induces proliferation as well as Ig secretion, and also that mycoplasma stimulation of lymphocytes may result in the production of cytokines. We communicate here our investigations into the effects of an M. arginini strain on the growth and maturation of preactivated B cells. After an initial biological characterization of the M. arginini effects in vitro, we established the protein nature of the growth-supporting activity and proceeded further on to isolate and identify the responsible proteins. The use of lipid- and lipoglycan-free extracts has allowed us to further extend our studies on the biological activities of the proteins from M. arginini and to compare these results with the effects obtained using live organisms. Furthermore, the study was extended to include a characterization of the in vivo-induced effects of live M. arginini. Altogether, the results from these experiments allow us to conclude that M. arginini is a T-cell independent polyclonal B-cell mitogen, mediated by five identified proteins, inducing growth and Ig secretion of both resting and preactivated B cells.

Evaluation and practical aspects of the use of a commercial DNA probe for detection of mycoplasma infections in cell cultures

Cell cultures have been analyzed for mycoplasma infections by using a commercial DNA-probe based on rRNA genes from mycoplasmas. Both the original version, Mycoplasma T.C. Detection Kit, and the improved version of the kit, Mycoplasma T.C. II Rapid Detection System, were used. The sensitivities of the two tests were found to be adequate in most cases and the improved version of the kit was 10-100 times more sensitive than the original one. A batch variation was observed with the improved version, which is not satisfactory. This batch variation can, however, be checked and the performance of the method with a properly working lot was found to be good.

Indicator cell lines for the detection of hidden mycoplasma contamination, using an adenosine phosphorylase screening test

Mycoplasmas are a major cause of cell culture contamination and are especially troublesome during HAT selection. The enzyme adenosine phosphorylase (adoP) is present in all common mycoplasma species but is considered to have a low activity in mammalian cells. However, using an adoP screening test, we have observed that some cell cultures do possess an intrinsic adoP activity leading to false positive results. Moreover, as a false negative result, we encountered a variant of Mycoplasma orale (identified after cultivation on agar and immunostaining) which was not detectable with the adoP screening in cell culture supernatants and only at low levels in cell lysates. To increase the low signal/noise adoP ratio found there, we used an indicator cell line with low intrinsic activity. Indicator cells were inoculated with the test supernatant and the adoP activity of these infected cells were measured after lysis. The procedure diminished the effect of biological variation in intrinsic enzyme activity between the several cell lines tested. Furthermore, in another mycoplasma infected cell line (with M. fermentans), this infection was only reliably detected using these indicator cells. With this procedure we obtained rapid results which were concordant with those obtained using the time consuming cultivation on agar.

Survey of Mycoplasma infections in cell cultures and a comparison of detection methods

A total of 1424 cell cultures was assayed for mycoplasmas by microbiological culture and fluorescent DNA staining. Of these cultures, 412 (29%) were infected with mycoplasmas. The most frequently occurring mycoplasma species were Mycoplasma orale (34%), M. hyorhinis (26%), M. arginini (21%), M. fermentans (13%) and Acholeplasma laidlawii (5%). A few isolates each of M. hominis, M. pulmonis and M. bovis were also detected. When detection methods were compared, microbiological culture produced false-negative results for 0.7% (3 of 412) of the infected cell cultures. DNA staining performed directly on the cells was falsely negative in 2.4% (5/207) of the mycoplasma-infected cultures that were compared, DNA staining performed on indicator cells was falsely negative in 3.1% (7/226). False positives appeared in direct DNA-staining in 1.8% (7/386) of the mycoplasma-free cultures and with DNA staining on indicator cells in 0.5% (3/620). For 11% of the cell cultures, the reading of the DNA staining was ambiguous. With DNA staining on indicator cells, 10% of the test results were ambiguous, but by further passage and staining on new indicator cells it was possible to get a definite diagnosis.

A survey of mycoplasma detection in veterinary vaccines

Nine live virus veterinary vaccines from six sources were found to be contaminated with mycoplasma. The vaccines were for use in canine, feline and avian species, and 53 batches of the products were at fault. The isolates were identified as Mycoplasma hominis, M. arginini, M. orale, M. hyorhinis and M. gallinarum. Investigation of the contamination rate of other batches or other products from the same source in some cases helped to determine the source of infection. Mycoplasma contaminants can be considered important not only because of their role as pathogens but also because they may indicate that insufficient care has been taken during vaccine manufacture or quality control.