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Fraeyman S, Croubels S, Devreese M, Antonissen G. Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria Mycotoxins: Occurrence, Toxicity and Toxicokinetics. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9070228. [PMID: 28718805 PMCID: PMC5535175 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9070228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins gain more and more interest due to their frequent contamination of food and feed, although in vivo toxicity and toxicokinetic data are limited. Whereas the Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin, moniliformin and enniatins particularly contaminate grain and grain-based products, Alternaria mycotoxins are also detected in fruits, vegetables and wines. Although contamination levels are usually low (µg/kg range), higher contamination levels of enniatins and tenuazonic acid may occasionally occur. In vitro studies suggest genotoxic effects of enniatins A, A1 and B1, beauvericin, moniliformin, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altertoxins and stemphyltoxin-III. Furthermore, in vitro studies suggest immunomodulating effects of most emerging toxins and a reproductive health hazard of alternariol, beauvericin and enniatin B. More in vivo toxicity data on the individual and combined effects of these contaminants on reproductive and immune system in both humans and animals is needed to update the risk evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority. Taking into account new occurrence data for tenuazonic acid, the complete oral bioavailability, the low total body clearance in pigs and broiler chickens and the limited toxicity data, a health risk cannot be completely excluded. Besides, some less known Alternaria toxins, especially the genotoxic altertoxins and stemphyltoxin III, should be incorporated in risk evaluation as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Fraeyman
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Heilos D, Richter L, Süssmuth RD, Heffeter P, Sulyok M, Kenner L, Berger W, Dornetshuber-Fleiss R. Mouse tissue distribution and persistence of the food-born fusariotoxins Enniatin B and Beauvericin. Toxicol Lett 2016; 247:35-44. [PMID: 26892719 PMCID: PMC5850989 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The fusariotoxins Enniatin B (Enn B) and Beauvericin (Bea) have recently aroused interest as food contaminants and as potential anticancer drugs. However, limited data are available about their toxic profile. Aim of this study was to investigate their pharmacological behavior in vivo and their persistence in mice. Therefore, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to analyze the distribution of Enn B and Bea in selected tissue samples and biological fluids originating from mice treated intraperitoneally with these cyclohexadepsipeptides. Overall, no toxicological signs during life time or pathological changes were observed. Moreover, both fusariotoxins were found in all tissues and serum but not in urine. Highest amounts were measured in liver and fat demonstrating the moleculeś tendency to bioaccumulate in lipophilic tissues. While for Bea no metabolites could be detected, for Enn B three phase I metabolites (dioxygenated-Enn B, mono- and di-demethylated-Enn B) were found in liver and colon, with dioxygenated-Enn B being most prominent. Consequently, contribution of hepatic as well as intestinal metabolism seems to be involved in the overall metabolism of Enn B. Thus, despite their structural similarity, the metabolism of Enn B and Bea shows distinct discrepancies which might affect long-term effects and tolerability in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent A. Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Daniela Heilos
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lennart Richter
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Petra Heffeter
- Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Research Platform "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Lukas Kenner
- Clinical Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Vienna, Währingergürtel 18-20, Vienna, Austria; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Cancer Research, Währingerstraße 13a, Vienna, Austria,; Institute of Laboratory Animal Pathology, Veterinary University of Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, Vienna, Austria
| | - Walter Berger
- Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Research Platform "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", Vienna, Austria.
| | - Rita Dornetshuber-Fleiss
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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Taevernier L, Detroyer S, Veryser L, De Spiegeleer B. Enniatin-containing solutions for oromucosal use: Quality-by-design ex-vivo transmucosal risk assessment of composition variability. Int J Pharm 2015; 491:144-51. [PMID: 26116015 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Fusafungine, a mixture of the cyclic hexadepsipeptides enniatins, is currently on the market for the treatment of upper respiratory tract diseases because of its bacteriostatic and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, a quality-by-design risk assessment was performed with two objectives: (i) investigate whether enniatins are able to permeate the mucosa and reach blood circulation, as the summary of product characteristics indicates this is not the case, and if so, to quantify their transmucosal kinetics and (ii) study the influence of excipient concentration variability on mucosal permeation. First, the concentration of the two main excipients isopropyl myristate and ethanol, known penetration enhancers, in several marketed samples was determined using GC-FID. Then, the transmucosal kinetics of the enniatins were quantitatively evaluated for different dose solutions, using porcine buccal mucosa in an ex-vivo in-vitro Franz diffusion cell set-up, with UHPLC-MS/MS bioanalytics. This study demonstrated that enniatins are capable of permeating the mucosa. However, no risk of a significant different transmucosal permeability with varying excipient concentrations was detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lien Taevernier
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sven Detroyer
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lieselotte Veryser
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Bart De Spiegeleer
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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