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Contributions of vibrational spectroscopy to virology: A review. CLINICAL SPECTROSCOPY 2022; 4:100022. [PMCID: PMC9093054 DOI: 10.1016/j.clispe.2022.100022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Vibrational spectroscopic techniques, both infrared absorption and Raman scattering, are high precision, label free analytical techniques which have found applications in fields as diverse as analytical chemistry, pharmacology, forensics and archeometrics and, in recent times, have attracted increasing attention for biomedical applications. As analytical techniques, they have been applied to the characterisation of viruses as early as the 1970 s, and, in the context of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, have been explored in response to the World Health Organisation as novel methodologies to aid in the global efforts to implement and improve rapid screening of viral infection. This review considers the history of the application of vibrational spectroscopic techniques to the characterisation of the morphology and chemical compositions of viruses, their attachment to, uptake by and replication in cells, and their potential for the detection of viruses in population screening, and in infection response monitoring applications. Particular consideration is devoted to recent efforts in the detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, and monitoring COVID-19.
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2
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Praena B, Mascaraque M, Andreu S, Bello-Morales R, Abarca-Lachen E, Rapozzi V, Gilaberte Y, González S, López-Guerrero JA, Juarranz Á. Potent Virucidal Activity In Vitro of Photodynamic Therapy with Hypericum Extract as Photosensitizer and White Light against Human Coronavirus HCoV-229E. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14112364. [PMID: 36365182 PMCID: PMC9693429 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14112364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergent human coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 and its high infectivity rate has highlighted the strong need for new virucidal treatments. In this sense, the use of photodynamic therapy (PDT) with white light, to take advantage of the sunlight, is a potent strategy for decreasing the virulence and pathogenicity of the virus. Here, we report the virucidal effect of PDT based on Hypericum extract (HE) in combination with white light, which exhibits an inhibitory activity of the human coronavirus HCoV-229E on hepatocarcinoma Huh-7 cells. Moreover, despite continuous exposure to white light, HE has long durability, being able to maintain the prevention of viral infection. Given its potent in vitro virucidal capacity, we propose HE in combination with white light as a promising candidate to fight against SARS-CoV-2 as a virucidal compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Praena
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Edificio de Biología, Darwin 2, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Mascaraque
- Departamento de Biología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Edificio de Biología, Darwin 2, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigaciones Sanitarias, IRYCIS, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Sabina Andreu
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Edificio de Biología, Darwin 2, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel Bello-Morales
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Edificio de Biología, Darwin 2, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Edgar Abarca-Lachen
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Jorge, 50830 Villanueva de Gállego, Spain
| | | | - Yolanda Gilaberte
- Hospital Miguel Servet, Servicio de Dermatología, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Salvador González
- Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigaciones Sanitarias, IRYCIS, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Medicina y Especialidades Médicas, Universidad de Alcalá, 28805 Madrid, Spain
| | - José Antonio López-Guerrero
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Edificio de Biología, Darwin 2, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (J.A.L.-G.); (Á.J.)
| | - Ángeles Juarranz
- Departamento de Biología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Edificio de Biología, Darwin 2, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigaciones Sanitarias, IRYCIS, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (J.A.L.-G.); (Á.J.)
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Zhang Y, Chen H, Zou M, Oerlemans R, Shao C, Ren Y, Zhang R, Huang X, Li G, Cong Y. Hypericin Inhibit Alpha-Coronavirus Replication by Targeting 3CL Protease. Viruses 2021; 13:v13091825. [PMID: 34578406 PMCID: PMC8473218 DOI: 10.3390/v13091825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an Alphacoronavirus (α-CoV) that causes high mortality in infected piglets, resulting in serious economic losses in the farming industry. Hypericin is a dianthrone compound that has been shown as an antiviral activity on several viruses. Here, we first evaluated the antiviral effect of hypericin in PEDV and found the viral replication and egression were significantly reduced with hypericin post-treatment. As hypericin has been shown in SARS-CoV-2 that it is bound to viral 3CLpro, we thus established a molecular docking between hypericin and PEDV 3CLpro using different software and found hypericin bound to 3CLpro through two pockets. These binding pockets were further verified by another docking between hypericin and PEDV 3CLpro pocket mutants, and the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay confirmed that hypericin inhibits the PEDV 3CLpro activity. Moreover, the alignments of α-CoV 3CLpro sequences or crystal structure revealed that the pockets mediating hypericin and PEDV 3CLpro binding were highly conserved, especially in transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV). We then validated the anti-TGEV effect of hypericin through viral replication and egression. Overall, our results push forward that hypericin was for the first time shown to have an inhibitory effect on PEDV and TGEV by targeting 3CLpro, and it deserves further attention as not only a pan-anti-α-CoV compound but potentially also as a compound of other coronaviral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhang
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal and Comparative Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (M.Z.); (C.S.); (R.Z.); (X.H.)
| | - Huijie Chen
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal and Comparative Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (M.Z.); (C.S.); (R.Z.); (X.H.)
- College of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Jilin Agriculture Science and Technology University, Jilin 132101, China
| | - Mengmeng Zou
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal and Comparative Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (M.Z.); (C.S.); (R.Z.); (X.H.)
| | - Rick Oerlemans
- Department of Drug Design, University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Changhao Shao
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal and Comparative Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (M.Z.); (C.S.); (R.Z.); (X.H.)
| | - Yudong Ren
- Department of Computer Science and Technology, College of Electrical and Information Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China;
| | - Ruili Zhang
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal and Comparative Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (M.Z.); (C.S.); (R.Z.); (X.H.)
| | - Xiaodan Huang
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal and Comparative Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (M.Z.); (C.S.); (R.Z.); (X.H.)
| | - Guangxing Li
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal and Comparative Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (M.Z.); (C.S.); (R.Z.); (X.H.)
- Correspondence: (G.L.); (Y.C.)
| | - Yingying Cong
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal and Comparative Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (M.Z.); (C.S.); (R.Z.); (X.H.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: (G.L.); (Y.C.)
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Pezzotti G, Boschetto F, Ohgitani E, Fujita Y, Zhu W, Marin E, McEntire BJ, Bal BS, Mazda O. Silicon nitride: a potent solid-state bioceramic inactivator of ssRNA viruses. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2977. [PMID: 33536558 PMCID: PMC7858580 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82608-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Surface inactivation of human microbial pathogens has a long history. The Smith Papyrus (2600 ~ 2200 B.C.) described the use of copper surfaces to sterilize chest wounds and drinking water. Brass and bronze on doorknobs can discourage microbial spread in hospitals, and metal-base surface coatings are used in hygiene-sensitive environments, both as inactivators and modulators of cellular immunity. A limitation of these approaches is that the reactive oxygen radicals (ROS) generated at metal surfaces also damage human cells by oxidizing their proteins and lipids. Silicon nitride (Si3N4) is a non-oxide ceramic compound with known surface bacterial resistance. We show here that off-stoichiometric reactions at Si3N4 surfaces are also capable of inactivating different types of single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses independent of whether their structure presents an envelop or not. The antiviral property of Si3N4 derives from a hydrolysis reaction at its surface and the subsequent formation of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in doses that could be metabolized by mammalian cells but are lethal to pathogens. Real-time reverse transcription (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests of viral RNA and in situ Raman spectroscopy suggested that the products of Si3N4 hydrolysis directly react with viral proteins and RNA. Si3N4 may have a role in controlling human epidemics related to ssRNA mutant viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Pezzotti
- grid.419025.b0000 0001 0723 4764Ceramic Physics Laboratory, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Sakyo-ku, Matsugasaki, Kyoto, 606–8585 Japan ,grid.410793.80000 0001 0663 3325Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Tokyo Medical University, 6–7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160–0023 Japan ,grid.136593.b0000 0004 0373 3971The Center for Advanced Medical Engineering and Informatics, Osaka University, 2–2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565–0854 Japan ,grid.272458.e0000 0001 0667 4960Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kamigyo-ku, 465 Kajii-cho, Kyoto, 602–8566 Japan ,grid.272458.e0000 0001 0667 4960Department of Dental Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602–8566 Japan
| | - Francesco Boschetto
- grid.419025.b0000 0001 0723 4764Ceramic Physics Laboratory, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Sakyo-ku, Matsugasaki, Kyoto, 606–8585 Japan ,grid.272458.e0000 0001 0667 4960Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kamigyo-ku, 465 Kajii-cho, Kyoto, 602–8566 Japan
| | - Eriko Ohgitani
- grid.272458.e0000 0001 0667 4960Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kamigyo-ku, 465 Kajii-cho, Kyoto, 602–8566 Japan
| | - Yuki Fujita
- grid.419025.b0000 0001 0723 4764Ceramic Physics Laboratory, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Sakyo-ku, Matsugasaki, Kyoto, 606–8585 Japan
| | - Wenliang Zhu
- grid.419025.b0000 0001 0723 4764Ceramic Physics Laboratory, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Sakyo-ku, Matsugasaki, Kyoto, 606–8585 Japan
| | - Elia Marin
- grid.419025.b0000 0001 0723 4764Ceramic Physics Laboratory, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Sakyo-ku, Matsugasaki, Kyoto, 606–8585 Japan ,grid.272458.e0000 0001 0667 4960Department of Dental Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602–8566 Japan
| | - Bryan J. McEntire
- grid.422391.f0000 0004 6010 3714SINTX Technologies Corporation, 1885 West 2100 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84119 USA
| | - B. Sonny Bal
- grid.422391.f0000 0004 6010 3714SINTX Technologies Corporation, 1885 West 2100 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84119 USA
| | - Osam Mazda
- grid.272458.e0000 0001 0667 4960Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kamigyo-ku, 465 Kajii-cho, Kyoto, 602–8566 Japan
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Verebová V, Beneš J, Staničová J. Biophysical Characterization and Anticancer Activities of Photosensitive Phytoanthraquinones Represented by Hypericin and Its Model Compounds. Molecules 2020; 25:E5666. [PMID: 33271809 PMCID: PMC7731333 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25235666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Photosensitive compounds found in herbs have been reported in recent years as having a variety of interesting medicinal and biological activities. In this review, we focus on photosensitizers such as hypericin and its model compounds emodin, quinizarin, and danthron, which have antiviral, antifungal, antineoplastic, and antitumor effects. They can be utilized as potential agents in photodynamic therapy, especially in photodynamic therapy (PDT) for cancer. We aimed to give a comprehensive summary of the physical and chemical properties of these interesting molecules, emphasizing their mechanism of action in relation to their different interactions with biomacromolecules, specifically with DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valéria Verebová
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine & Pharmacy, Komenského 73, 041 81 Košice, Slovakia;
| | - Jiří Beneš
- Institute of Biophysics and Informatics, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Kateřinská 1, 121 08 Prague, Czech Republic;
| | - Jana Staničová
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine & Pharmacy, Komenského 73, 041 81 Košice, Slovakia;
- Institute of Biophysics and Informatics, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Kateřinská 1, 121 08 Prague, Czech Republic;
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Zhang J, Gao L, Hu J, Wang C, Hagedoorn PL, Li N, Zhou X. Hypericin: Source, Determination, Separation, and Properties. SEPARATION & PURIFICATION REVIEWS 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15422119.2020.1797792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zhang
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Processing, Storage and Transportation of Characterized Agro-Products, College of Environment and Resources, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ling Gao
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Processing, Storage and Transportation of Characterized Agro-Products, College of Environment and Resources, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jie Hu
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Processing, Storage and Transportation of Characterized Agro-Products, College of Environment and Resources, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chongjun Wang
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Processing, Storage and Transportation of Characterized Agro-Products, College of Environment and Resources, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing, China
| | - Peter-Leon Hagedoorn
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Ning Li
- Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Processing, Storage and Transportation of Characterized Agro-Products, College of Environment and Resources, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xing Zhou
- Chongqing Academy of Chinese Materia Medica, Chongqing, China
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7
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Pezzotti G, Zhu W, Adachi T, Horiguchi S, Marin E, Boschetto F, Ogitani E, Mazda O. Metabolic machinery encrypted in the Raman spectrum of influenza A virus-inoculated mammalian cells. J Cell Physiol 2019; 235:5146-5170. [PMID: 31710091 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.29392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Raman spectroscopy was applied with a high spectral resolution to a structural study of Influenza (type A) virus before and after its inoculation into Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. This study exploits the fact that the major virus and cell constituents, namely DNA/RNA, lipid, and protein molecules, exhibit peculiar fingerprints in the Raman spectrum, which clearly differed between cells and viruses, as well as before and after virus inoculation into cells. These vibrational features, which allowed us to discuss viral assembly, membrane lipid evolution, and nucleoprotein interactions of the virus with the host cells, reflected the ability of the virus to alter host cells' pathways to enhance its replication efficiency. Upon comparing Raman signals from the host cells before and after virus inoculation, we were also able to discuss in detail cell metabolic reactions against the presence of the virus in terms of compositional variations of lipid species, the formation of fatty acids, dephosphorylation of high-energy adenosine triphosphate molecules, and enzymatic hydrolysis of the hemagglutinin glycoprotein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Pezzotti
- Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Ceramic Physics Laboratory, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan.,The Center for Advanced Medical Engineering and Informatics, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Wenliang Zhu
- Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Ceramic Physics Laboratory, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Adachi
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Dental Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Satoshi Horiguchi
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Dental Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Elia Marin
- Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Ceramic Physics Laboratory, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Dental Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Francesco Boschetto
- Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Ceramic Physics Laboratory, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Eriko Ogitani
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Osam Mazda
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
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Oda R, Agsalda-Garcia M, Loi N, Kamada N, Milne C, Killeen J, Choi SY, Lim E, Acosta-Maeda T, Misra A, Shiramizu B. Raman-Enhanced Spectroscopy Distinguishes Anal Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Serodiscordant Couples. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2019; 35:287-294. [PMID: 30612435 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2018.0198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-positive individuals are at increased risk for precancerous anal squamous intraepithelial lesions (SILs). Anal cytology and digital rectal examination are performed as screening tools, but extensive training and appropriate instruments are required to follow up on an abnormal anal cytology. Thus, novel approaches to SIL evaluation could improve better health care follow-up by efficient and timely diagnosis to offer treatment options. Recently, Raman-enhanced spectroscopy (RESpect) has emerged as a potential new tool for early identification of SIL. RESpect is a noninvasive, label-free, laser-based technique that identifies molecular composition of tissues and cells. HIV-serodiscordant couples had anal biopsies obtained during high-resolution anoscopy. RESpect was performed on the specimens. Principal component analysis of the data identified differences between normal and abnormal tissue as well as HIV-positive and HIV-negative individuals of each couple even with similar pathologies. RESpect has the potential to change the paradigm of anal pathology diagnosis and could provide insight into different pathways leading to SIL in HIV-serodiscordant couples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Oda
- 1 Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Melissa Agsalda-Garcia
- 2 Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology and Pharmacology, Hawaii Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Nicholas Loi
- 2 Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology and Pharmacology, Hawaii Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Natalie Kamada
- 2 Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology and Pharmacology, Hawaii Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Cris Milne
- 2 Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology and Pharmacology, Hawaii Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Jeffrey Killeen
- 3 Department of Pathology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - So Yung Choi
- 4 Biostatistics Core, Department of Complementary and Integrative Medicine, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Eunjung Lim
- 4 Biostatistics Core, Department of Complementary and Integrative Medicine, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Tayro Acosta-Maeda
- 5 Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Anupam Misra
- 5 Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Bruce Shiramizu
- 2 Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology and Pharmacology, Hawaii Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
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