Trauma outcomes: a death analysis study

Enhancing patient safety in trauma: Understanding adverse events, assessment tools, and the role of trauma video review

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate adverse events (AEs) in trauma resuscitation, evaluate contributing factors, and assess methods, such as trauma video review (TVR), to mitigate AEs.

BACKGROUND

Trauma remains a leading cause of global mortality and morbidity, necessitating effective trauma care. Despite progress, AEs during trauma resuscitation persist, impacting patient outcomes and the healthcare system. Identifying and analyzing AEs and their determinants are crucial for improving trauma care.

METHODS

This narrative review explored the definition, identification, and assessment of AEs associated with trauma resuscitation within the trauma system. It includes various studies and assessment tools such as STAT Taxonomy and T-NOTECHs. Additionally, it assessed the role of TVR in detecting AEs and strategies to enhance patient safety.

CONCLUSION

Integrated with standardized tools, TVR shows promise for identifying AEs. Challenges include ensuring reporting consistency and integrating approaches into existing protocols. Future research should prioritize linking trauma team performance to patient outcomes, and develop sustainable TVR programs to enhance patient safety.

Are Pre-hospital Trauma Deaths Preventable? A Systematic Literature Review

BACKGROUND

The first and largest peak of trauma mortality is encountered on the trauma site. The aim of this study was to determine whether these trauma-related deaths are preventable. We performed a systematic literature review with a focus on pre-hospital preventable deaths in severely injured patients and their causes.

METHODS

Studies published in a peer-reviewed journal between January 1, 1990 and January 10, 2018 were included. Parameters of interest: country of publication, number of patients included, preventable death rate (PP = potentially preventable and DP = definitely preventable), inclusion criteria within studies (pre-hospital only, pre-hospital and hospital deaths), definition of preventability used in each study, type of trauma (blunt versus penetrating), study design (prospective versus retrospective) and causes for preventability mentioned within the study.

RESULTS

After a systematic literature search, 19 papers (total 7235 death) were included in this literature review. The majority (63.1%) of studies used autopsies combined with an expert panel to assess the preventability of death in the patients. Pre-hospital death rates range from 14.6 to 47.6%, in which 4.9-11.3% were definitely preventable and 25.8-42.7% were potentially preventable. The most common (27-58%) reason was a delayed treatment of the trauma victims, followed by management (40-60%) and treatment errors (50-76.6%).

CONCLUSION

According to our systematic review, a relevant amount of the observed mortality was described as preventable due to delays in treatment and management/treatment errors. Standards in the pre-hospital trauma system and management should be discussed in order to find strategies to reduce mortality.

Survival prediction algorithms miss significant opportunities for improvement if used for case selection in trauma quality improvement programs

BACKGROUND

Quality improvement (QI) programs have shown to reduce preventable mortality in trauma care. Detailed review of all trauma deaths is a time and resource consuming process and calculated probability of survival (Ps) has been proposed as audit filter. Review is limited on deaths that were 'expected to survive'. However no Ps-based algorithm has been validated and no study has examined elements of preventability associated with deaths classified as 'expected'. The objective of this study was to examine whether trauma performance review can be streamlined using existing mortality prediction tools without missing important areas for improvement.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of all trauma deaths reviewed by our trauma QI program. Deaths were classified into non-preventable, possibly preventable, probably preventable or preventable. Opportunities for improvement (OPIs) involve failure in the process of care and were classified into clinical and system deviations from standards of care. TRISS and PS were used for calculation of probability of survival. Peer-review charts were reviewed by a single investigator.

RESULTS

Over 8 years, 626 patients were included. One third showed elements of preventability and 4% were preventable. Preventability occurred across the entire range of the calculated Ps band. Limiting review to unexpected deaths would have missed over 50% of all preventability issues and a third of preventable deaths. 37% of patients showed opportunities for improvement (OPIs). Neither TRISS nor PS allowed for reliable identification of OPIs and limiting peer-review to patients with unexpected deaths would have missed close to 60% of all issues in care.

CONCLUSIONS

TRISS and PS fail to identify a significant proportion of avoidable deaths and miss important opportunities for process and system improvement. Based on this, all trauma deaths should be subjected to expert panel review in order to aim at a maximal output of performance improvement programs.

Epidemiology of traumatic deaths: comprehensive population-based assessment

BACKGROUND

The epidemiology of traumatic deaths was periodically described during the development of the American trauma system between 1977 and 1995. Recognizing the impact of aging populations and the potential changes in injury mechanisms, the purpose of this work was to provide a comprehensive, prospective, population-based study of Australian trauma-related deaths and compare the results with those of landmark studies.

METHODS

All prehospitalization and in-hospital trauma deaths occurring in an inclusive trauma system at a single Level 1 trauma center [400 patients with an injury severity score (ISS) >15/year] underwent autopsy and were prospectively evaluated during 2005. High-energy (HE) and low-energy (LE) deaths were categorized based on the mechanism of the injury, time frame (prehospitalization, <48 hours, 2-7 days, >7 days), and cause [which was determined by an expert panel and included central nervous system-related (CNS), exsanguination, CNS + exsanguination, airway, multiple organ failure (MOF)]. Data are presented as a percent or the mean +/- SEM.

RESULTS

There were 175 deaths during the 12-month period. For the 103 HE fatalities (age 43 +/- 2 years, ISS 49 +/- 2, male 63%), the predominant mechanisms were motor vehicle related (72%), falls (4%), gunshots (8%), stabs (6%), and burns (5%). In all, 66% of the patients died during the prehospital phase, 27% died after <48 hours in hospital, 5% died after 3 to 7 days in hospital, and 2% died after >7 days. CNS (33%) and exsanguination (33%) were the most common causes of deaths, followed by CNS + exsanguination (17%) and airway compromise 8%; MOF occurred in only 3%. Six percent of the deaths were undetermined. All LE deaths (n = 72, age 83 +/- 1 years, ISS 14 +/- 1, male 45%) were due to low falls. All LE patients died in hospital (20% <48 hours, 32% after 3-7 days, 48% after 7 days). The causes of deaths were head injury (26%) and complications of skeletal injuries (74%).

CONCLUSIONS

The HE injury mechanisms, time frames, and causes in our study are different from those in the earlier, seminal reports. The classic trimodal death distribution is much more skewed to early death. Exsanguination became as frequent as lethal head injuries, but the incidence of fatal MOF is lower than reported earlier. LE trauma is responsible for 41% of the postinjury mortality, with distinct epidemiology. The LE group deserves more attention and further investigation.

Preventability classification in mortality cases: a reliability study

BACKGROUND

The Pennsylvania Trauma Systems Foundation ad hoc Outcomes Committee developed the Pennsylvania Outcomes and Performance Improvement Measurement System (POPIMS) software program that provided a consistent outcomes reporting template for trauma centers in the state. This study was performed to evaluate inter-rater reliability of POPIMS software for mortality classification.

METHODS

All trauma centers in the state were instructed to submit one preventable (P), one potentially preventable (PP), and one nonpreventable (NP) POPIMS mortality report to the Pennsylvania Trauma Systems Foundation office. The reports were blinded, an equal number of P, PP, and NP classified mortalities were randomly selected, and a meeting of trauma directors who submitted cases was convened. Institutional classification (IC) was compared with reviewing trauma directors (reviewer classification [RC]) to evaluate inter-rater reliability of software. Chi-square test was used to analyze differences. Inter-rater reliability among reviews was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight trauma surgeons reviewed 34 cases (11 preventable, 12 PP, 11 nonpreventable), each having a minimum of 10 reviews. When compared with IC, RC was significantly different (p < 0.001). In addition, factors contributing to mortality were different when comparing IC and RC reviews of different mortality preventability classes. There was a moderate level of inter-rater reliability among reviewers as measured by Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.64.

CONCLUSIONS

POPIMS is the first statewide PI reporting system to share outcomes information between trauma centers. Significant differences between IC of mortality and that provided by reviewers suggest that more objective criteria for mortality classification are needed. Realizing limitations of preventability classification, additional outcomes parameters should be pursued.

Patient safety in trauma: maximal impact management errors at a level I trauma center

BACKGROUND

The Division of Research at JCAHO developed a taxonomy (common terminology and classification schema) to promote consistency in reporting and facilitate root cause analysis. We undertook a review of trauma management errors at our institution with maximal impact (death). The analysis was based on the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) taxonomy.

METHODS

Trauma deaths between 2001 and 2006 at our Level I trauma were peer-reviewed to identify errors in management. The errors are classified according to type, domain, and cause.

RESULTS

Seventy-six (9.9%) of 764 deaths had management errors contributing to potentially preventable deaths in 60 (errors in management might have contributed to death) and preventable deaths (management errors definitely contributed to death) in 16 patients. Questionable resuscitation was the commonest type and involved poor treatment in the majority. Errors were made in all domains but most commonly in the emergency department and the operating room and in the resuscitative phase. Human errors predominated.

CONCLUSIONS

Management errors in the basics of trauma care continue even in established trauma centers, despite guidelines, protocols, and continuous performance improvement. Standardized reporting such as the taxonomy may result in progressive collection of patient safety data and lead to innovations to minimize these errors.

Life beyond severe traumatic injury: an integrative review of the literature

It is only recently that recognition of the serious and debilitating sequelae of trauma has prompted exploration of outcomes beyond survival, such as disability, health status and quality of life. This paper aims to review the literature describing outcomes following severe traumatic injury to provide clinicians with a greater understanding of the recovery trajectory following severe trauma and highlight the issues faced by those recovering from such injury. Electronic databases, published reference lists and the Internet were searched to identify relevant literature. The heterogeneous nature of published literature in this area prohibited a systematic approach to inclusion of papers in this review. Trauma survivors report significant sequelae that influence functional status, psychological wellbeing, quality of life and return to productivity following severe injury. Key themes that emerge from the review include: current trauma systems which provide inadequate support along the recovery trajectory; rehabilitation referral which is affected by geographical location and provider preferences; a long-term loss of productivity in both society and the workplace; a high incidence of psychological sequelae; a link between poor recovery and increased drug and alcohol consumption; and valued social support which can augment recovery. Future research to evaluate interventions which target the recovery needs of the severely injured patients is recommended. Particular emphasis is required to develop systematic, sustainable and cost-effective follow-up to augment the successes of existing acute trauma services in providing high quality acute resuscitation and definitive trauma management.

[The significance of delayed diagnosis of lesions in multiply traumatised patients. A study of 1,187 shock room patients]

BACKGROUND

Multislice computed tomography (CT) technology has improved the diagnosis of relevant lesions within the phase of primary treatment of severely injured patients. The lack of time in this phase and the complexity of the multiple injuries there is still a risk that lesions will be missed at this stage. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the incidence, causes, implications and significance when injuries are not diagnosed until later.

METHODS

The data were documented prospectively in the context of a quality management system for the care of severely injured patients in a primary urban trauma centre. Missed injuries were defined as any lesions that had not been recognised by the time the patient was admitted to the ICU.

RESULTS

During a 44-month period 1,187 (ISS 21+/-17) patients were enrolled in the study, all of whom were admitted from May 1998 to April 2002 after attending the emergency room. In total 64 (4.9%) missed injuries were detected in 58 (ISS 30+/-16) patients; 26 of the 64 missed injuries were located on the torso, 8 injuries in the head and neck region, and 30 on the arms and legs. The missed injuries were categorised as follows: 1. Lesion not seen in diagnostics (n=15). 2. Incomplete diagnostics (n=8). 3. Primarily unsuspicuous examination (n=35). 4. Diagnostics interrupted due to hemodynamic instability (n=6).

CONCLUSION

Despite intensified and standardised diagnostic procedures prescribed for use in trauma centres, injuries are still missed in severely injured patients. About 30% of lesions that are not diagnosed until after the patient has left the emergency room have clinically significant, but not lethal, consequences for the patient. Great importance attaches to the follow-up investigation on the intensive care station, so that lesions that have initially been overlooked can be diagnosed and treated as soon as possible so as to keep the complication rate low.

Multiple trauma in children: critical care overview

Multiple trauma is more than the sum of the injuries. Management not only of the physiologic injury but also of the pathophysiologic responses, along with integration of the child's emotional and developmental needs and the child's family, forms the basis of trauma care. Multiple trauma in children also elicits profound psychological responses from the healthcare providers involved with these children. This overview will address the pathophysiology of multiple trauma in children and the general principles of trauma management by an integrated trauma team. Trauma is a systemic disease. Multiple trauma stimulates the release of multiple inflammatory mediators. A lethal triad of hypothermia, acidosis, and coagulopathy is the direct result of trauma and secondary injury from the systemic response to trauma. Controlling and responding to the secondary pathophysiologic sequelae of trauma is the cornerstone of trauma management in the multiply injured, critically ill child. Damage control surgery is a new, rational approach to the child with multiple trauma. The selection of children for damage control surgery depends on the severity of injury. Major abdominal vascular injuries and multiple visceral injuries are best considered for this approach. The effective management of childhood multiple trauma requires a combined team approach, consideration of the child and family, an organized trauma system, and an effective quality assurance and improvement mechanism.

Initial management of the poly-trauma patient: a practical approach in an Australian major trauma service

The initial management of the poly-trauma patient is of vital importance to minimizing both patient morbidity and mortality. We present a practical approach to the early management of a severely injured patient as practiced at Liverpool Hospital in Sydney, Australia. Specific attention is paid to innovations in care and specific controversies in early management as well as local solutions to challenging problems.

Determining the most effective level of TRISS-derived probability of survival for use as an audit filter

OBJECTIVE

To determine the most effective cut-off of TRISS-derived probability of survival (TRISS-PS) for the selection of trauma deaths for audit, using a large sample of trauma deaths from the United Kingdom (UK).

METHODS

TRISS-PS and avoidability of death (as judged by an independent peer review panel) were compared for a sample of 222 trauma deaths. Sensitivity, specificity and predictive values were calculated for the 0.5 screening cut-off. ROC curves were derived to assess the ability of different levels of TRISS-PS to identify avoidable deaths. Calculations were made for both the raw sample and the sample adjusted for the sampling method used.

RESULTS

For the weight-adjusted sample, the sensitivity of TRISS-PS greater than 0.5 for the detection of avoidable death is 80% (95% CI 61-91%), the specificity is 86% (95% CI 80-90%), PPV 42% (95% CI 29-56%) and NPV 97% (95% CI 93-99%). Twenty percent of avoidable deaths would have been 'missed' if the 0.5 level of audit filter had been used. Based on the same sample, the best cut-off is at TRISS-PS 0.33, with a sensitivity of 90% and specificity of 80%. It is estimated that this cut-off would have selected 62 deaths for audit and failed to identify 2 out of 25 avoidable deaths.

CONCLUSION

The previously accepted audit filter of TRISS-PS of greater than 0.5 fails to identify a significant proportion of avoidable deaths. This study suggests that the most effective level of audit filter cut-off of TRISS-PS for the trauma system studied is 0.33. This level would identify 90% of avoidable deaths with 80% specificity. Similar ROC curve analysis could be used to determine appropriate TRISS-PS cut-offs for institutions or other trauma systems.

Post hoc mortality analysis of the efficacy trial of diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin in the treatment of severe traumatic hemorrhagic shock

BACKGROUND

The efficacy trial of diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb) in traumatic hemorrhagic shock demonstrated an unexpected mortality imbalance, prompting a three-step review to better understand the cause of this finding.

METHODS

Patients were enrolled in this DCLHb hemorrhagic shock study using 28-day mortality as the primary endpoint. Mortality data were primarily analyzed using the TRISS method and a nonblinded clinical review, followed by an independent Pennsylvania Trauma Outcome Study (PTOS)-derived probability of survival analyses. Finally, a trauma expert conducted a blinded clinical review of cases incorrectly predicted by these PTOS analyses.

RESULTS

More of the DCLHb patients predicted to survive using TRISS actually died than in the control subgroup (24% vs. 3%, p < 0.002). Nonblinded clinical review noted that 72% of the patients who died had prior traumatic arrest, a presenting Glasgow Coma Scale score of 3, or a base deficit > 15 mEq/L. DCLHb patients predicted to survive using PTOS also more often died than did control patients (30% vs. 8%, p < 0.04). Blinded clinical review determined that 94% of the deaths were clinically justified. Both the TRISS and the PTOS models gave an adjusted mortality relative risk of 2.3, similar to the unadjusted risk data.

CONCLUSION

Mortality analysis in this shock study involved both clinical case reviews and mortality prediction models. Despite the observation that nearly all of the deaths were clinically justified, the TRISS and PTOS models demonstrated excess unpredicted deaths in the DCLHb subgroup. A combined process, using both mortality prediction models and clinical case reviews, is useful in trauma studies that use a mortality endpoint.

Vascular injury in Australia

Vascular injury poses a small but significant challenge in Australian trauma care. Opportunities such as better practice guidelines and minimum standards will allow surgeons to improve delivery of quality care to the next generation of vascular trauma victims. Training in the management of vascular trauma surgery with integration of vascular and general surgery in trauma care should optimize outcomes. The authors' vision is that all vascular and general surgery trainees would eventually undertake the Definitive Surgical Trauma Care Course and improve vascular trauma outcomes and reduce mortality.

Clinical pathways--can they be used in trauma care. An analysis of their ability to fit the patient

This study prospectively evaluated the appropriateness and ability of clinical pathways to fit trauma patients in five key conditions, severe head injury, fractured ribs, fractured pelvis, fractured femur and blunt abdominal trauma, who were admitted to a single Level 1 Trauma Centre, between February and July 1999. Each pathway consisted of 14 elements of care divided into observable outcomes. Failure to achieve an outcome resulted in a variance or deviation from the pathway, which was assessed by the number of non-applicable variances. Appropriateness of clinical pathways was assessed by the applicability index (the number of non-applicable variances divided by the potential variances). Critical mismatches occurred when non-applicable variances exceeded 50% of potential variances. 146 patients, with the mean age 41.9 years (S.D. 20.7), mean ISS 11.1 (S.D. 10.7) were enrolled; 18 with severe head injury, 59 with fractured ribs, 13 with fractured pelvis, 20 with fractured femur and 36 with blunt abdominal trauma. Critical mismatch occurred in seven patients. Applicability indexes were 87 for head, 93 for ribs, 92 for blunt abdominal trauma, 91 for femur and 92 for the pelvic pathway. Patient assessment, pain management, skin integrity and patient education were the most appropriate key elements of care, discharge planning, patient satisfaction, treatment and activity were least applicable. This study identified, for the first time, that clinical pathways are clinically appropriate for major trauma conditions.

Road traffic fatalities in Victoria, Australia and changes to the trauma care system

BACKGROUND

The aim was to identify organizational and clinical errors in the management of road traffic fatalities and to use this information to improve Victoria's trauma care system.

METHODS

A multidisciplinary committee evaluated the complete ambulance, hospital and autopsy records of 559 consecutive road traffic fatalities, who were alive on arrival of ambulance services, in five substantial time periods between 1992 and 1998. Patients who survived more than 30 days were excluded. Errors or inadequacies in each phase of management, including those contributing to death, were identified and an assessment was made of the potential preventability of death.

RESULTS

Findings between 1992 and 1998 were similar. In 1998, 1672 problems were identified in 110 deaths with 1024 (61 per cent) contributing to death. Eight hundred and forty-two (50 per cent) of the total problems occurred in the emergency department. There were frequent problems in initial patient reception and medical consultation, resuscitation, investigation and assessment (especially of the abdomen and head), and in transfer to the operating theatre or to a higher-level hospital. Victoria's combined preventable and potentially preventable death rate has been unchanged between 1992 and 1998 (34-38 per cent).

CONCLUSION

The problems identified led to a Ministerial Taskforce on Trauma and Emergency Services in Victoria as a consequence of which a new trauma system is now being implemented.

Trauma education

OBJECTIVE

Trauma is a diverse disease in which time critical decisions and skills affect patient outcome. This review article examines the methods and assessment of education for the management of the trauma patient.

METHOD

Literature review.

RESULTS

Education is a planned experience that leads to a change in behaviour. Adult education methods can be used to improve the knowledge, skills, attitudes and relationships of health care workers. Adult learners need careful consideration of lecture style, small group work, role play and skills stations in order to achieve these aims. These techniques are typically used in short intensive courses such as Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) aimed at the initial care of the trauma patient. There is a relative lack of education directed at definitive care. It is important to assess the impact of trauma education in terms of clinical process, retention of skills/knowledge and the outcome of patients. A generic approach (the ABC approach) is applicable to the care of all critically ill or injured patients. This approach should be taught at junior level.

CONCLUSION

The care of trauma patients can be improved by educating health care workers using adult educational strategies.

Prospective evaluation of early missed injuries and the role of tertiary trauma survey

BACKGROUND

This study prospectively evaluated the prevalence, clinical significance, and contributing factors to early missed injuries and the role of tertiary survey in minimizing frequency of missed injuries in admitted trauma patients. Missed injury, clinically significant missed injury, tertiary survey, and contributing factors were defined. Tertiary survey was conducted within 24 hours.

RESULTS

Of 206 patients, 134 patients (65%) had 309 missed injuries composing 39% of all 798 injuries seen. Tertiary trauma survey detected 56% of early missed injuries and 90% of clinically significant missed injuries within 24 hours. Clinically significant missed injuries occurred in 30 patients with complications in 11 patients and death in two patients. Of 224 contributing errors, 123 errors were in clinical assessment, 83 errors were in radiology, 14 errors were patient related, and four errors were technical. The missed injury rate was significantly higher in patients with multiple injuries and in those involved in road crashes.

CONCLUSIONS

Secondary trauma survey is not a definitive assessment and should be supplemented by tertiary trauma survey.