Effects of Fixed-Interval and Fixed-Ratio Schedules of Token Reinforcement on Exercise with Obese and Nonobese Boys

Increasing Exercise Intensity: Teaching High-Intensity Interval Training to Individuals with Developmental Disabilities Using a Lottery Reinforcement System

Rates of overweight and obesity are above 70% in typically developing adults in the United States, with higher rates observed in individuals diagnosed with developmental disability (DD). Lottery reinforcement systems have been validated as effective exercise interventions for individuals with DD. Although high-intensity interval training (HIIT) has demonstrated health benefits, it has not been studied using individuals within this population. The purpose of this study was to implement a lottery reinforcement system to systematically increase heart rate (HR) during 30-min HIIT sessions with 3 adults with DD. Results demonstrated increases in HR from below to within the prescribed range in all 3 participants. For 1 participant, weight decreased by 10.8 pounds during the 9-week program. Implications include that lottery systems increase exercise intensity with adults with DD, that HR during exercise can be reliably controlled using a lottery system, and that similar programs may result in health benefits.

Variable Magnitude and Frequency Financial Reinforcement is Effective at Increasing Adults' Free-Living Physical Activity

Financial rewards can increase health behaviors, but little research has quantified the effects of different reinforcement schedules on this process. This analysis compares the average moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) associated with six distinct positive reinforcement schedules implemented within a physical activity promotion clinical trial. In this trial, participants (N = 512) wore an accelerometer for 1 year and were prescribed one of two types of MVPA goals: a static 30-min goal or an adaptive goal based on the MVPA produced over the previous 9 days. As participants met goals, they transitioned through a sequence of reinforcement stages, beginning with a continuous-fixed magnitude (CRF-FM), then CRF-variable magnitude (CRF-VM), followed by a series of variable ratio-VM (VR-VM) schedules. The average accumulation of MVPA bouts over the last 24 days of each stage was compared to each other. Average MVPA during stage transitions was also examined. The results indicated that immediate reinforcement resulted in more MVPA relative to a comparison group and that the relative effectiveness of adaptive versus static goals was dependent on the magnitude of daily MVPA goals. Schedule effects were qualitatively different for individuals who frequently met their daily goals (Large Intervention Effect subgroup) versus those who did not (Small Intervention Effect subgroup). For the Large Intervention Effect group, the CRF-VM schedule produced the most MVPA, in particular within the adaptive goal condition, with increases observed immediately upon encountering this schedule. In contrast, the CRF-FM schedule produced small amounts of MVPA. This pattern was reversed for the Small Intervention Effect subgroup, where the most MVPA was associated with the CRF-FM stage. Future interventions should focus on discriminating small versus large intervention effects as quickly as possible so that the optimal reinforcement schedule can be used.

Token reinforcement: Translational research and application

The present paper provides an integrative review of research on token reinforcement systems, organized in relation to basic behavioral functions and economic variables. This type of functional taxonomy provides a useful way to organize the literature, bringing order to a wide range of findings across species and settings, and revealing gaps in the research and areas especially ripe for analysis and application. Unlike standard translational research, based on a unidirectional model in which the analysis moves from laboratory to the applied realm, work in the area of token systems is best served by a bidirectional interplay between laboratory and applied research, where applied questions inspire research on basic mechanisms. When based on and contributing to an analysis, applied research on token economies can be on the leading edge of theoretical advances, helping set the scientific research agenda.

Best Practices in Utilizing the Changing Criterion Design

The changing criterion design (CCD) has been a recognized format of single-case research for four decades. Published examples of the CCD have been limited and the structure of the design used in the literature has varied to a degree that might engender confusion. This review examines the structure of CCD studies published to date to identify prior implementation practices and identify best practices for future use.

Preliminary efficacy of prize-based contingency management to increase activity levels in healthy adults

An estimated 30% of Americans meet the criteria for obesity. Effective, low-cost interventions to increase physical activity are needed to prevent and treat obesity. In this study, 11 healthy adults wore Fitbit accelerometers for 3 weeks. During the initial baseline, subjects earned prize draws for wearing the Fitbit. During intervention, percentile schedules were used to calculate individual prize-draw criteria. The final week was a return to baseline. Four subjects increased step counts as a result of the intervention. A bout analysis of interresponse times revealed that subjects increased overall step counts by increasing daily minutes active and within-bout response rates and decreasing pauses between bouts of activity. Strategies to improve effectiveness are suggested, such as modification of reinforcement probability and amount and identification of the function of periods of inactivity.

Effects of fixed ratio schedules of reinforcement on exercise by college students

Response-contingent reinforcement was expected to increase the time spent riding a stationary exercise cycle by college women. A single-subject experimental design was used. Three college-age women rode a stationary cycle until they were either too tired to continue or until 45 minutes elapsed. Video clips were used to reinforce cycling in the first part of the experiment. Under some conditions, no video clips were presented (baseline). In other conditions, the video was on for the entire session or 25 sec. of video was presented after the completion of FR 40 (40 rotations of the cycle's pedals) or 80 (80 rotations of the cycle's pedals) schedules. In the second part of the experiment, money was presented following every 20 (FR 20) or 40 (FR 40) rotations of the cycle's pedals. The time spent riding the cycle increased over the baseline when video clips were presented. No consistent differences were observed when the video clips were on for the entire session and when they were presented under FR 40 and FR 80 schedules. For one out of two participants, monetary reward increased the time spent riding the cycle. The data suggest that reinforcement schedules are a means of initiating and maintaining adherence to an exercise program.

Temporal discounting: basic research and the analysis of socially important behavior

Recent basic research on human temporal discounting is reviewed to illustrate procedures, summarize key findings, and draw parallels with both nonhuman animal research and conceptual writings on self-control. Lessons derived from this research are then applied to the challenge of analyzing socially important behaviors such as drug abuse, eating and exercise, and impulsiveness associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Attending to the broader temporal context in which behavior occurs may aid in the analysis of socially important behavior. Applying this perspective to the study of behavior in natural environments also highlights the importance of combining methodological flexibility with conceptual rigor to promote the extension of applied behavior analysis to a broader array of socially important behaviors.

Effects of a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule with changing criteria on exercise in obese and nonobese boys

The effects of a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement on pedaling a a stationary exercise bicycle were examined. Three obese and three nonobese 11-year-old boys were individually tested five times weekly for approximately 12 weeks. A changing-criterion design was used in which each successive criterion was increased over mean performance rate in the previous phase by approximately 15%. The contingencies of the successive criteria resulted in systematic increases in rate of exercise for all children. Final variable-ratio rates were higher than those under fixed ratios found in previous research, with rates for 2 of the 3 obese boys approximating those of the nonobese.