TNF-α suppression by glutathione preconditioning attenuates hepatic ischemia reperfusion injury in young and aged rats

MTHFR Gene Polymorphism Association With Psoriatic Arthritis Risk and the Efficacy and Hepatotoxicity of Methotrexate in Psoriasis

Aims

To assess whether MTHFR rs1801131 and rs1801133 SNPs are associated with concomitant psoriatic arthritis (PsA) and investigate the efficacy and hepatotoxicity of MTX in patients with psoriasis in the Han Chinese population.

Methods

This prospective, single-arm, interventional study recruited a total of 309 patients with psoriasis, 163 with psoriatic arthritis and 146 without psoriatic arthritis, who completed a 12-week MTX treatment and 1,031 healthy controls. Patients' characteristics including age, gender, disease duration, height, weight, smoking status, alcohol consumption, medical history, disease severity and liver function test results were accessed and recorded. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping of rs1801131 and rs1801133 in the MTHFR gene was performed.

Results

The rs1801133 CC genotype was more frequent in patients with PsA than those with PsO and healthy controls (42.3% vs. 28.8% vs. 33.1%, p < 0.05). The 90% reduction from baseline PASI score (PASI 90) response rates to MTX were significantly higher in patients with the rs1801133 TT genotype than those with the CT and CC genotype (33.96% vs. 19.31% vs. 14.41%, OR = 2.76, p = 0.006). The rs1801133 CT+TT genotype was more frequent in PsA patients with abnormal liver function than in those with normal liver function (p < 0.05). In addition, patients with the rs1801131 CT genotype had lower PASI 75 response rates to MTX (OR = 0.49, p = 0.01), and lower risk of ALT elevation (OR = 0.46, p = 0.04).

Conclusions

This study provided some evidence for MTHFR polymorphism association with the risk of PsA and the efficacy and hepatotoxicity of the low-dose MTX in the Chinese population. Given the relatively small sample size and potentially missed diagnosis of PsA, the results from this study warrant further investigation.

Effect of whey protein consumption on IL-6 and TNF-α: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Due to inconsistent data about WP supplementation on inflammatory markers, present systematic review and meta-analysis was done to summarize its effect on TNF-α and IL-6.

METHODS

Our search was done in Pubmed, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane up to June 2021. Weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) was used to indicate the effect sizes. Conceivable sources of heterogeneity were detected by subgroup analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, 11 eligible RCTs were included. The pooled results showed that WP supplementation had no significant effect on TNF-α and IL-6 status compare to those receiving carbohydrate and other types of proteins as placebo. Results from subgroup analysis based on health status, study duration, WP dosage and sex, expressed no favorable effect of WP on TNF-α and IL-6 levels.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that whey supplementation had no favorable effects on inflammatory biomarkers including TNF- α and IL-6.

Protective Effects of Reduced Glutathione and Ulinastatin on Xeno-transplanted Human Ovarian Tissue Against Ischemia and Reperfusion Injury

Recently, transplantation of cryopreserved ovarian tissue is the method for fertility preservation for oncologic and nononcologic reasons. The main challenge of ovarian cryopreservation followed by transplantation is that ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) induced the loss of follicles. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of glutathione (GSH), ulinastatin (UTI) or both (GSH+UTI) on preventing ischemia reperfusion-induced follicles depletion in ovarian grafts.

Ovarian fragments were collected from 20 women aged 29±6 years. Frozen-thawed human ovarian tissue was xenografted into SCID mice, at the same time GSH, UTI and GSH+UTI was administrated respectively. The ovarian grafts were collected at the 1st, 3rd, 7th, 14th, 28th, 56th, and 85th day after xenotransplantation. Follicle survival rate was measured by H&E staining and Live/Dead staining. Angiogenic activity and macrophage recruitment was evidenced by immunohistochemical staining. The oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines in human ovarian xenografts were measured by real-time PCR. The results indicated that after the treatments of GSH, UTI and GSH+UTI in the hosts, follicular survival in ovarian grafts were improved. The level of VEGF, CD31, and antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase 1 and superoxide dismutase 2 in ovarian grafts were increased. Accumulation of macrophages, level of IL6 and TNF-α, as well as malondialdehyde was decreased in ovarian grafts from treated groups. In conclusion, administration of GSH, UTI and GSH+UTI decreased the depletion of follicles in human grafts post-transplantation by inhibiting IRI-induced antiangiogenesis, oxidative stress and inflammation.

Use of natural anti-oxidants in experimental animal models of hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury

Background

Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) remains a clinical challenge in liver surgery, trauma and transplantation, contributing to morbidity and mortality worldwide. Thus, its impact, not only on the liver itself but also on remote tissues, has been studied during the last years. Different natural anti-oxidant substances have been researched in animal models, implementing different times of ischemia, aiming to test new therapeutic interventions.

Objective

A literature review has been conducted with two goals: (1) to identify different natural anti-oxidants studied in experimental models; and (2) to summarize the various times of ischemia employed.

Methods

Scientific papers published in PubMed for the period 2000–2020 were searched and reviewed.

Results

More than 30 natural anti-oxidants have been tested. The time of ischemia ranged from 15 to 90 min with 60 min used most frequently, followed by 45 min. No studies were found with time exceeding 90 min.

Conclusions

A significant number of research has been conducted on the use and protective effect of natural anti-oxidants in experimental animal models. Based on the published papers, 45–60 min seems to be the optimal duration of ischemia.

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Liver IRI is a multifactorial and complex process, involving many mechanisms, cells and mediators. Even though, most of these mechanisms have not been completely understood, several substances have been tested in experimental models in order to determine their protective or destructive role.

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Antioxidant therapy is a promising therapeutic pathway that can ameliorate the impact of liver ischemia-reperfusion injury.

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Non-pharmaceutical, natural extracts are increasingly gaining their place into the therapeutic options of physicians, in an attempt to avoid various adverse effects that the chemical drugs can cause.

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New unexplored research areas may include different strains of rats, more studies in larger mammals of comparable anatomy to humans, experiments on different liver diseases, publishing negative results regarding toxic doses of natural antioxidants, and testing different ischemia times.

Characteristics of Changes in Inflammatory Cytokines as a Function of Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Stage in Mice

Liver ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) can severely compromise the prognosis of patients receiving liver surgery. While inflammation contributes to the damage resulting from IRI, only a limited number of inflammation biomarkers have been identified as being associated with the different stages of hepatic IRI. As an approach to identify some of these inflammatory cytokines and the molecular mechanisms involved within different stages of hepatic IRI, we used an advanced antibody array assay to detect multiple proteins. With this technology, we observed specific differences in the content of inflammatory cytokines between ischemic and sham controls, as well as a function of the different reperfusion stages in a hepatic IRI mouse model. For example, while liver tissue content of IL-12p40/p70 was significantly increased in the ischemic stage, it was significantly decreased in the reperfusion stage as compared with that of the sham group. For other inflammatory cytokines, no changes were obtained between the ischemic and reperfusion stages with levels of IL-17, Eotaxin-2, Eotaxin, and sTNF RII all being consistently increased, while those of TIMP-1, TIMP-2, BLC, and MCSF consistently decreased as compared with that of the sham group at all reperfusion stages examined. Results from protein function annotation Gene Ontology and the KEGG pathway revealed that inflammatory cytokines are enriched in a network associated with activation of inflammatory response signaling pathways such as TLR, TNF, and IL-17 when comparing responses of the IR versus sham groups. The identification of cytokines along with their roles at specific stages of IRI may reveal important new biological markers for the diagnosis and prognosis of hepatic IRI.

Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury Revisited: An Overview of the Latest Pharmacological Strategies

Ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) permeates a variety of diseases and is a ubiquitous concern in every transplantation proceeding, from whole organs to modest grafts. Given its significance, efforts to evade the damaging effects of both ischemia and reperfusion are abundant in the literature and they consist of several strategies, such as applying pre-ischemic conditioning protocols, improving protection from preservation solutions, thus providing extended cold ischemia time and so on. In this review, we describe many of the latest pharmacological approaches that have been proven effective against IRI, while also revisiting well-established concepts and presenting recent pathophysiological findings in this ever-expanding field. A plethora of promising protocols has emerged in the last few years. They have been showing exciting results regarding protection against IRI by employing drugs that engage several strategies, such as modulating cell-surviving pathways, evading oxidative damage, physically protecting cell membrane integrity, and enhancing cell energetics.

Hepatic Stellate Cells Play a Functional Role in Exacerbating Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Rat Liver

PURPOSE

The involvement of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) with ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury in rat liver was examined using gliotoxin, which is known to induce HSC apoptosis.

METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were used. HSC was represented by a glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive cell. Liver ischemia was produced by cross-clamping the hepatoduodenal ligament. The degree of I/R injury was evaluated by a release of aminotransferases. Sinusoidal diameter and sinusoidal perfusion rates were examined using intravital fluorescence microscopy.

RESULTS

Gliotoxin significantly decreased the number of GFAP-positive cells 48 h after dosing (2.50 ± 0.19% [mean ± SD] in the nontreated group vs. 1.91 ± 0.46% in the gliotoxin-treated group). Liver damage was significantly suppressed by the pretreatment with gliotoxin. Sinusoidal diameters in zone 3 were wider in the gliotoxin group (10.25 ± 0.35 µm) than in the nontreated group (8.21 ± 0.50 µm). The sinusoidal perfusion rate was maintained as well in the gliotoxin group as in normal livers, even after I/R.

CONCLUSIONS

Pretreatment with gliotoxin significantly reduced the number of HSCs in the liver and further suppressed liver injury following I/R. It is strongly suggested that HSCs play a functional role in exacerbating the degree of I/R injury of the liver.

Ryanodine receptor antagonism alleviates skeletal muscle ischemia reperfusion injury by modulating TNF-α and IL-10

BACKGROUND

Intracellular calcium overload has been implicated in various pathological conditions including ischemia reperfusion injury. This study aims to explore the effect and probable mechanism of dantrolene, a ryanodine receptor and intracellular calcium antagonist, on the skeletal muscle ischemia reperfusion injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SD rats were randomly divided into three groups: sham group which underwent anaesthesia and exposure of femoral vein, reperfusion group that received 2 h ischemia and the amount of diluent via femoral vein before 4 h reperfusion, dantrolene group that underwent 2 h ischemia and was given 2 mg/kg dantrolene via femoral vein before 4 h reperfusion. The parameters measured at the end of reperfusion included serum maleic dialdehyde (MDA), tissue myeloperoxidase (MPO) and muscle histology, as well as serum TNF-α and IL-10.

RESULTS

Levels of MDA, MPO and TNF-α increased in the reperfusion group, whereas the relevant expressions in the dantrolene group decreased significantly. Histological examination demonstrated significant improvements between the same both groups. IL-10 reflected the protection observed above with a significant up-regulation of expression after dantrolene administration.

CONCLUSION

Ryanodine receptor antagonist dantrolene exerted a significant protective effect against the inflammatory injury of skeletal muscle ischemia reperfusion. The underlying molecular mechanism is probably related to the suppression of TNF-α levels and the increment of IL-10 expression.

Sevoflurane relieves hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury by inhibiting the expression of Grp78

Purpose: This article aimed to study the role of sevoflurane pre-conditioning in hepatic ischemia–reperfusion and its potential mechanism.

Methods: Rat liver ischemia–reperfusion model was constructed. Serum TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-10, and IL-6 concentrations were detected by ELISA. Malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and nitric oxide (NO) in liver homogenate were determined. Hematoxylin–Eosin (HE) staining, Tunel, and immunohistochemistry were performed. Ischemia–reperfusion hepatocyte model was established. Cells transfection was conducted. Apoptosis was observed by flow cytometry. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blotting analysis were used.

Results: Compared with I/R group, liver damage degree, liver cell apoptosis, and glucose regulatory protein 78 (Grp78) expression was obviously reduced in rats of SEV group. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 concentrations were also significantly increased (P<0.01). MDA and NO concentrations were dramatically lower (P<0.01) and SOD concentration was significantly higher (P<0.01). Apoptosis rate, Grp78, PERK, eIF2α, and p-c-JNK/JNK expression was also significantly decreased (P<0.01). Sevoflurane significantly reduced apoptosis and expression of PERK, eIF2α, p-c-JNK/JNK by inhibiting the expression of Grp78 (P<0.01).

Conclusion: Sevoflurane relieves hepatic ischemia–reperfusion injury by inhibiting the expression of Grp78.

Dual Effect of Hepatic Macrophages on Liver Ischemia and Reperfusion Injury during Liver Transplantation

Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a major complication in liver transplantation (LT) and it is closely related to the recovery of grafts' function. Researches has verified that both innate and adaptive immune system are involved in the development of IRI and Kupffer cell (KC), the resident macrophages in the liver, play a pivotal role both in triggering and sustaining the sterile inflammation. Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), released by the initial dead cell because of the ischemia insult, firstly activate the KC through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as toll-like receptors. Activated KCs is the dominant players in the IRI as it can secret various pro-inflammatory cytokines to exacerbate the injury and recruit other types of immune cells from the circulation. On the other hand, KCs can also serve in a contrary way to ameliorate IRI by upregulating the anti-inflammatory factors. Moreover, new standpoint has been put forward that KCs and macrophages from the circulation may function in different way to influence the inflammation. Managements towards KCs are expected to be the effective way to improve the IRI.

Neutrophil extracellular traps in acrolein promoted hepatic ischemia reperfusion injury: Therapeutic potential of NOX2 and p38MAPK inhibitors

Neutrophil is a significant contributor to ischemia reperfusion (IR) induced liver tissue damage. However, the exact role of neutrophils in IR induced innate immune activation and liver damage is not quite clear. Our study sheds light on the role of chronic oxidative stress end products in worsening the IR inflammatory process by neutrophil recruitment and activation following liver surgery. We employed specific inhibitors for molecular targets-NOX2 (NADPH oxidase 2) and P38 MAPK (Mitogen activated protein kinase) signal to counteract neutrophil activation and neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) release induced liver damage in IR injury. We found that acrolein initiated neutrophil chemotaxis and induced NET release both in vitro and in vivo. Acrolein exposure caused NET induced nuclear and mitochondrial damage in HepG2 cells as well as aggravated the IR injury in rat liver. Pretreatment with F-apocynin and naringin, efficiently suppressed acrolein induced NET release in vitro. Notably, it suppressed the expression of inflammatory cytokines, P38MAPK-ERK activation, and apoptotic signals in rat liver exposed to acrolein and subjected to IR. Moreover, this combination effectively attenuated acrolein induced NET release and hepatic IR injury. In the current study we have shown that the acrolein accumulation in liver due to chronic stress, is responsible for neutrophil recruitment and its activation leading to NET induced liver damage during surgery. Our study shows that therapeutic targeting of NOX2 and P38MAPK signaling in patients with chronic hepatic disorders would improve post operative hepatic function and survival.

Adult Consequences of Extremely Preterm Birth: Cardiovascular and Metabolic Diseases Risk Factors, Mechanisms, and Prevention Avenues

Extremely preterm babies are exposed to various sources of injury during critical stages of development. The extremely preterm infant faces premature transition to ex utero physiology and undergoes adaptive mechanisms that may be deleterious in the long term because of permanent alterations in organ structure and function. Perinatal events can also directly cause structural injury. These disturbances induce morphologic and functional changes in their organ systems that might heighten their risks for later adult chronic diseases. This review examines the pathophysiology of programming of long-term health and diseases after preterm birth and associated perinatal risk factors.

Protective roles of bioactive peptides during ischemia-reperfusion injury: From bench to bedside

Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a well-known pathological condition which may lead to disability and mortality. I/R injury remains an unresolved and complicated situation in a number of clinical conditions, such as cardiac arrest with successful reanimation, as well as ischemic events in brain and heart. Peptides have many attractive advantages which make them suitable candidate drugs in treating I/R injury, such as low toxicity and immunogenicity, good solubility property, distinct tissue distribution pattern, and favorable pharmacokinetic profile. An increasing number of studies indicate that peptides could protect against I/R injury in many different organs and tissues. Peptides also face several therapeutic challenges that limit their clinical application. In this review, we present the mechanisms of action of peptides in reducing I/R injury, as well as further discuss modification strategies to improve the functional properties of bioactive peptides.

Preconditioning methods in the management of hepatic ischemia reperfusion- induced injury: Update on molecular and future perspectives

Hepatic IR (ischemia reperfusion) injury is a commonly encountered obstacle in the post-operative management of hepatic surgery. Hepatic IR occurs during 'Pringle maneuver' for reduction of blood loss or during a brief period of cold storage followed by reperfusion of liver grafts. The stress induced during hepatic IR, triggers a spectrum of cellular responses leading to the varying degrees of hepatic complications which in turn affect the post operative care. Different preconditioning methods either activate or subdue different sets of molecular signals, resulting in varied levels of protection against hepatic IR injury. Yet, there is a serious lacuna in the knowledge regarding the choice of preconditioning methods and the resulting molecular changes in order to assess the efficiency and choice of these methods correctly. This review provides an update on the various preconditioning approaches such as surgical/ischemic, antioxidant, pharmaceutical and genetic preconditioning strategies published during last six years (2009-2015). Further, we discuss the attenuation or inhibition of specific inflammatory, apoptotic and necrotic markers in the various experimental models of liver IR subjected to different preconditioning strategies. While enlisting the controversies in the ischemic preconditioning strategy, we bring out the uncertainties in the existing molecular targets and their reliability in the attenuation of hepatic IR injury. Future research studies would include the novel preconditioning strategies employ i) the targeted gene silencing of key molecular targets inducing IR, ii) hyper expression of beneficial molecular signals against IR via gene transfer techniques. The above studies would see the combination of these latest techniques with the established preconditioning strategies for better post-operative hepatic management.

Expression of scavenger receptor A in rat's liver tissue during acute obstructive cholangitis and its significance

Objective

Acute obstructive cholangitis (AOC) is a severe disease that leads to sepsis, shock and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Liver is the largest and the major organ for the defense mechanisms during the sepsis. Our aim was to investigate the expression of scavenger receptor A (SRA) in rat’s liver tissue during AOC and its relation with the inflammatory mediators and hepatic injury caused by endotoxins.

Methods

Ninety Wistar rats were randomly divided into three equal groups. In group one, the choledochus were ligagted and Escherichia coli O₁₁₁B4 injected into it to produce AOC model. Group two had choledochus ligated and group three had sham surgery. Six animals from each group were sacrificed at 0, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h for comparative analysis of endotoxins, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6 in plasma and expression of SRA protein and SRA mRNA in liver tissue. The P < 0.05 was considered significant. Ethical approval was obtained.

Results

The plasma endotoxins, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 levels in AOC rats increased progressively with time. The SRA protein and SRA mRNA expression decreased with time. The differences among groups were significant (P < 0.01). Liver histopathology showed gradually aggravated hepatic injury with neutrophil infiltration, degeneration and necrosis of hepatocytes.

Conclusion

In AOC, the expression of SRA in liver gradually decreased with progressive increase in level of plasma endotoxins and hepatic injury suggesting its importance in the defense mechanism.

Hormesis in Cholestatic Liver Disease; Preconditioning with Low Bile Acid Concentrations Protects against Bile Acid-Induced Toxicity

Introduction

Cholestasis is characterized by accumulation of bile acids and inflammation, causing hepatocellular damage. Still, liver damage markers are highest in acute cholestasis and drop when this condition becomes chronic, indicating that hepatocytes adapt towards the hostile environment. This may be explained by a hormetic response in hepatocytes that limits cell death during cholestasis.

Aim

To investigate the mechanisms that underlie the hormetic response that protect hepatocytes against experimental cholestatic conditions.

Methods

HepG2.rNtcp cells were preconditioned (24 h) with sub-apoptotic concentrations (0.1–50 μM) of various bile acids, the superoxide donor menadione, TNF-α or the Farsenoid X Receptor agonist GW4064, followed by a challenge with the apoptosis-inducing bile acid glycochenodeoxycholic acid (GCDCA; 200 μM for 4 h), menadione (50 μM, 6 h) or cytokine mixture (CM; 6 h). Levels of apoptotic and necrotic cell death, mRNA expression of the bile salt export pump (ABCB11) and bile acid sensors, as well as intracellular GCDCA levels were analyzed.

Results

Preconditioning with the pro-apoptotic bile acids GCDCA, taurocholic acid, or the protective bile acids (tauro)ursodeoxycholic acid reduced GCDCA-induced caspase-3/7 activity in HepG2.rNtcp cells. Bile acid preconditioning did not induce significant levels of necrosis in GCDCA-challenged HepG2.rNtcp cells. In contrast, preconditioning with cholic acid, menadione or TNF-α potentiated GCDCA-induced apoptosis. GCDCA preconditioning specifically reduced GCDCA-induced cell death and not CM- or menadione-induced apoptosis. The hormetic effect of GCDCA preconditioning was concentration- and time-dependent. GCDCA-, CDCA- and GW4064- preconditioning enhanced ABCB11 mRNA levels, but in contrast to the bile acids, GW4064 did not significantly reduce GCDCA-induced caspase-3/7 activity. The GCDCA challenge strongly increased intracellular levels of this bile acid, which was not lowered by GCDCA-preconditioning.

Conclusions

Sub-toxic concentrations of bile acids in the range that occur under normal physiological conditions protect HepG2.rNtcp cells against GCDCA-induced apoptosis, which is independent of FXR-controlled changes in bile acid transport.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Autophagy in Hepatic Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury remains a major complication of liver resection, transplantation, and hemorrhagic shock. Although the mechanisms that contribute to hepatic I/R are complex and diverse involving the interaction of cell injury in hepatocytes, immune cells, and endothelium, mitochondrial dysfunction is a cardinal event culminating in hepatic reperfusion injury. Mitochondrial autophagy, so-called mitophagy, is a key cellular process that regulates mitochondrial homeostasis and eliminates damaged mitochondria in a timely manner. Growing evidence accumulates that I/R injury is attributed to defective mitophagy. This review aims to summarize the current understanding of autophagy and its role in hepatic I/R injury and highlight the various therapeutic approaches that have been studied to ameliorate injury.

Hypoxia preconditioning induced HIF-1α promotes glucose metabolism and protects mitochondria in liver I/R injury

BACKGROUND

Ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury is one of the main lesions after liver transplantation. This study aims to detect hypoxia-induced HIF-1α protects transplanted liver against I/R injury by promoting glucose metabolism to decrease mitochondrial injury and apoptosis on rat model.

METHODS

The rats were given a treatment of 90 min non-lethal hypoxic preconditioning to induce and increase the HIF-1α expression. The autologous orthotopic liver transplantation model was used to imitate liver I/R injury.

RESULTS

Hypoxic-induced HIF-1α was detected to increase in liver tissue after 90-minute hypoxic environment (HP vs. Ctrl, *P<0.001). After operation, the expression of HIF-1α in liver tissue was also stayed at a high level. At 24h after operation, several genes were promoted, such as the levels of HK-2 (HP vs. AT, 24h, *P=0.004), Lactate dehydrogenase (LDHA) (HP vs. AT, 24h, *P=0.003), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK-1) (HP vs. AT, 24h, *P=0.007), even the NF-κB and Erk pathways. From the TUNEL assay, the apoptosis in hypoxic preconditioning liver tissue was decreased compared with non-HP operative group at 12h after operation. The expressions of cleaved-caspase 3 (HP vs. AT, *P=0.0119) and PARP (HP vs. AT, *P=0.0134) in HP group were also significantly lower than AT group.

CONCLUSION

The hypoxia-induced HIF-1α could promote glucose metabolism to protect hepatocellular mitochondria from damage. It could be a useful way to protect liver against I/R injuries and inflammatory injury, and particularly promote the recovery of graft function.

Mechanisms of arsenic induced liver fibrosis

Arsenic exposure may cause liver injury, fibrosis and cirrhosis, and the main pathological changes include swelling, degeneration and necrosis of hepatocytes, inflammatory cell infiltration in portal area and different degrees of fibrosis. The mechanisms by which arsenic causes liver fibrosis are complicated. Many kinds of cytokines which are closely related to oxidative stress injury, inflammation and liver fibrosis participate in the development and progression of arsenic induced liver fibrosis.

Molecular pathways in protecting the liver from ischaemia/reperfusion injury: a 2015 update

Ischaemia/reperfusion injury is an important cause of liver damage during surgical procedures such as hepatic resection and liver transplantation, and represents the main cause of graft dysfunction post-transplantation. Molecular processes occurring during hepatic ischaemia/reperfusion are diverse, and continuously include new and complex mechanisms. The present review aims to summarize the newest concepts and hypotheses regarding the pathophysiology of liver ischaemia/reperfusion, making clear distinction between situations of cold and warm ischaemia. Moreover, the most updated therapeutic strategies including pharmacological, genetic and surgical interventions, as well as some of the scientific controversies in the field are described.