Abnormalities in chemokine receptor recycling in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Role of the tumor microenvironment in CLL pathogenesis

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells extensively interact with and depend on their surrounding tumor microenvironment (TME). The TME encompasses a heterogeneous array of cell types, soluble signals, and extracellular vesicles, which contribute significantly to CLL pathogenesis. CLL cells and the TME cooperatively generate a chronic inflammatory milieu, which reciprocally reprograms the TME and activates a signaling network within CLL cells, promoting their survival and proliferation. Additionally, the inflammatory milieu exerts chemotactic effects, attracting CLL cells and other immune cells to the lymphoid tissues. The intricate CLL-TME interactions also facilitate immune evasion and compromise leukemic cell surveillance. We also review recent advances that have shed light on additional aspects that are substantially influenced by the CLL-TME interplay.

p66Shc Deficiency in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Promotes Chemokine Receptor Expression Through the ROS-Dependent Inhibition of NF-κB

The microenvironment of lymphoid organs is central to the pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Within it, tumor cells find a favourable niche to escape immunosurveillance and acquire pro-survival signals. We have previously reported that a CLL-associated defect in the expression of the pro-apoptotic and pro-oxidant adaptor p66Shc leads to enhanced homing to and accumulation of leukemic cells in the lymphoid microenvironment. The p66Shc deficiency-related impairment in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in CLL cells is causally associated to the enhanced expression of the chemokine receptors CCR2, CXCR3 and CCR7, that promote leukemic cell homing to both lymphoid and non-lymphoid organs, suggesting the implication of a ROS-modulated transcription factor(s). Here we show that the activity of the ROS-responsive p65 subunit of the transcription factor NF-κB was hampered in the CLL-derived cell line MEC-1 expressing a NF-κB-luciferase reporter following treatment with H2O2. Similar results were obtained when intracellular ROS were generated by expression of p66Shc, but not of a ROS-defective mutant, in MEC-1 cells. NF-κB activation was associated with increased expression of the chemokine receptors CCR2, CXCR3 and CCR7. Reconstitution of p66Shc in CLL cells normalized intracellular ROS and hampered NF-κB activation, which led to a decrease in the expression of these homing receptors. Our data provide direct evidence that the p66Shc-deficiency-related ROS depletion in CLL cells concurs to NF-κB hyperactivation and homing receptor overexpression, providing a mechanistic basis for the enhanced ability of these cells to accumulate in the pro-survival lymphoid niche.

Interleukin (IL)-9 Supports the Tumor-Promoting Environment of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia

Simple Summary

Interleukin 9 (IL-9), a soluble factor secreted by immune cells, has been found in several tumor niches where, depending on the specific tumor type, it either promotes or counteracts tumor development. Recently, IL-9 has been implicated in the development of chronic lymphocytic leukemia, although the underlying molecular mechanism remains unknown. Here, we summarize the current knowledge concerning the roles of IL-9 in disease, with a focus on its implication in the pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Abstract

Interleukin (IL)-9 is a soluble factor secreted by immune cells into the microenvironment. Originally identified as a mediator of allergic responses, IL-9 has been detected in recent years in several tumor niches. In solid tumors, it mainly promotes anti-tumor immune responses, while in hematologic malignancies, it sustains the growth and survival of neoplastic cells. IL-9 has been recently implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying its contribution to this complex neoplasia are still unclear. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of IL-9 in the tumor microenvironment, with a focus on its role in the pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

A novel class of oxazepine-based anti-cancer agents induces cell death in primary human CLL cells and efficiently reduces tumor growth in Eμ-TCL1 mice through the JNK/STAT4/p66Shc axis

Survival and expansion of malignant B cells in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) are highly dependent both on intrinsic defects in the apoptotic machinery and on the interactions with cells and soluble factors in the lymphoid microenvironment. The adaptor protein p66Shc is a negative regulator of antigen receptor signaling, chemotaxis and apoptosis whose loss in CLL B cells contributes to their extended survival and poor prognosis. Hence, the identification of compounds that restore p66Shc expression and function in malignant B cells may pave the way to a new therapeutic approach for CLL. Here we show that a novel oxazepine-based compound (OBC-1) restores p66Shc expression in primary human CLL cells by promoting JNK-dependent STAT4 activation without affecting normal B cells. Moreover, we demonstrate that the potent pro-apoptotic activity of OBC-1 in human leukemic cells directly correlates with p66Shc expression levels and is abrogated when p66Shc is genetically deleted. Preclinical testing of OBC-1 and the novel analogue OBC-2 in Eμ-TCL1 tumor-bearing mice resulted in a significantly longer overall survival and a reduction of the tumor burden in the spleen and peritoneum. Interestingly, OBCs promote leukemic cell mobilization from the spleen to the blood, which correlates with upregulation of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor expression. In summary, our work identifies OBCs as a promising class of compounds that, by boosting p66Shc expression through the activation of the JNK/STAT4 pathway, display dual therapeutic effects for CLL intervention, namely the ability to mobilize cells from secondary lymphoid organs and a potent pro-apoptotic activity against circulating leukemic cells.

P66Shc: A Pleiotropic Regulator of B Cell Trafficking and a Gatekeeper in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia

Neoplastic B cells from chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients (CLL) have a profound deficiency in the expression of p66Shc, an adaptor protein with pro-apoptotic and pro-oxidant activities. This defect results in leukemic B cell resistance to apoptosis and additionally impinges on the balance between chemokine receptors that control B cell homing to secondary lymphoid organs and the sphingosine phosphate receptor S1PR1 that controls their egress therefrom, thereby favoring leukemic B cell accumulation in the pro-survival lymphoid niche. Ablation of the gene encoding p66Shc in the Eµ-TCL1 mouse model of human CLL enhances leukemogenesis and promotes leukemic cell invasiveness in both nodal and extranodal organs, providing in vivo evidence of the pathogenic role of the p66Shc defect in CLL pathogenesis. Here we present an overview of the functions of p66Shc in B lymphocytes, with a specific focus on the multiple mechanisms exploited by p66Shc to control B cell trafficking and the abnormalities in this process caused by p66Shc deficiency in CLL.

Optimization of Organotypic Cultures of Mouse Spleen for Staining and Functional Assays

By preserving cell viability and three-dimensional localization, organotypic culture stands out among the newest frontiers of cell culture. It has been successfully employed for the study of diseases among which neoplasias, where tumoral cells take advantage of the surrounding stroma to promote their own proliferation and survival. Organotypic culture acquires major importance in the context of the immune system, whose cells cross-talk in a complex and dynamic fashion to elicit productive responses. However, organotypic culture has been as yet poorly developed for and applied to primary and secondary lymphoid organs. Here we describe in detail the development of a protocol suitable for the efficient cutting of mouse spleen, which overcomes technical difficulties related to the peculiar organ texture, and for optimized organotypic culture of spleen slices. Moreover, we used microscopy, immunofluorescence, flow cytometry, and qRT-PCR to demonstrate that the majority of cells residing in spleen slices remain alive and maintain their original location in the organ architecture for several days after cutting. The development of this protocol represents a significant technical improvement in the study of the lymphoid microenvironment in both physiological and pathological conditions involving the immune system.

Modeling the Antileukemia Activity of Ellipticine-Related Compounds: QSAR and Molecular Docking Study

The antileukemia cancer activity of organic compounds analogous to ellipticine representes a critical endpoint in the understanding of this dramatic disease. A molecular modeling simulation on a dataset of 23 compounds, all of which comply with Lipinski's rules and have a structure analogous to ellipticine, was performed using the quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) technique, followed by a detailed docking study on three different proteins significantly involved in this disease (PDB IDs: SYK, PI3K and BTK). As a result, a model with only four descriptors (HOMO, softness, AC1RABAMBID, and TS1KFABMID) was found to be robust enough for prediction of the antileukemia activity of the compounds studied in this work, with an R2 of 0.899 and Q2 of 0.730. A favorable interaction between the compounds and their target proteins was found in all cases; in particular, compounds 9 and 22 showed high activity and binding free energy values of around -10 kcal/mol. Theses compounds were evaluated in detail based on their molecular structure, and some modifications are suggested herein to enhance their biological activity. In particular, compounds 22_1, 22_2, 9_1, and 9_2 are indicated as possible new, potent ellipticine derivatives to be synthesized and biologically tested.